| Welcome to Carnivora. We hope you enjoy your visit. You're currently viewing our forum as a guest. This means you are limited to certain areas of the board and there are some features you can't use. If you join our community, you'll be able to access member-only sections, and use many member-only features such as customizing your profile and voting in polls. Registration is simple, fast, and completely free. Join our community! If you're already a member please log in to your account to access all of our features: |
- Pages:
- 1
- 2
| Animal Intelligence Tests | |
|---|---|
| Tweet Topic Started: Jan 30 2016, 05:44 AM (2,936 Views) | |
| Taipan | Nov 30 2017, 03:23 PM Post #16 |
![]()
Administrator
![]()
|
Sorry, Grumpy Cat: Study finds dogs are brainier than cats Date: November 29, 2017 Source: Vanderbilt University ![]() The first study to actually count the number of cortical neurons in the brains of a number of carnivores, including cats and dogs, has found that dogs possess significantly more neurons than cats, raccoons have as many neurons as a primate packed into a brain the size of a cat's, and bears have the same number of neurons as a cat packed into a much larger brain. Credit: Jeremy Teaford, Vanderbilt University There's a new twist to the perennial argument about which is smarter, cats or dogs. It has to do with their brains, specifically the number of neurons in their cerebral cortex: the "little gray cells" associated with thinking, planning and complex behavior -- all considered hallmarks of intelligence. The first study to actually count the number of cortical neurons in the brains of a number of carnivores, including cats and dogs, has found that dogs possess significantly more of them than cats. "In this study, we were interested in comparing different species of carnivorans to see how the numbers of neurons in their brains relate to the size of their brains, including a few favorite species including cats and dogs, lions and brown bears," said Associate Professor of Psychology and Biological Sciences Suzana Herculano-Houzel, who developed the method for accurately measuring the number of neurons in brains. (Carnivora is a diverse order that consists of 280 species of mammals all of which have teeth and claws that allow them to eat other animals.) The results of the study are described in a paper titled "Dogs have the most neurons, though not the largest brain: Trade-off between body mass and number of neurons in the cerebral cortex of large carnivoran species" accepted for publication in the open access journal Frontiers in Neuroanatomy. As far as dogs and cats go, the study found that dogs have about 530 million cortical neurons while cats have about 250 million. (That compares to 16 billion in the human brain.) "I believe the absolute number of neurons an animal has, especially in the cerebral cortex, determines the richness of their internal mental state and their ability to predict what is about to happen in their environment based on past experience," Herculano-Houzel explained. "I'm 100 percent a dog person," she added, "but, with that disclaimer, our findings mean to me that dogs have the biological capability of doing much more complex and flexible things with their lives than cats can. At the least, we now have some biology that people can factor into their discussions about who's smarter, cats or dogs." Herculano-Houzel and her collaborators -- graduate students Débora Messeder and Fernanda Pestana from the Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro in Brazil; Professor Kelly Lambert at Randolph-Macon College; Associate Professor Stephen Noctor at the University of California, Davis School of Medicine; Professors Abdulaziz Alagaili and Osama Mohammad from King Saud University in Saudi Arabia; and Research Professor Paul R. Manger at the University of the Witwatersrand in South Africa -- picked carnivorans to study because of their diversity and large range of brain sizes as well as the fact that they include both domesticated and wild species. The researchers analyzed the brains of one or two specimens from each of eight carnivoran species: ferret, mongoose, raccoon, cat, dog, hyena, lion and brown bear. They expected that their measurements would confirm the intuitive hypothesis that the brains of carnivores should have more cortical neurons than the herbivores they prey upon. That is because hunting is more demanding, cognitively speaking, compared to the herbivore's primary strategy of finding safety in sheer numbers. However, that proved not to be the case. The researchers determined that the ratio of neurons to brain size in small- and medium-sized carnivores was about the same as that of herbivores, suggesting that there is just as much evolutionary pressure on the herbivores to develop the brain power to escape from predators as there is on carnivores to catch them. In fact, for the largest carnivorans the neuron-to-brain-size ratio is actually lower. They found that the brain of a golden retriever has more neurons than a hyena, lion or brown bear, even though the bigger predators have brains up to three times as large. The bear is an extreme example. Its brain is 10 times larger than a cat's, but has about the same number of neurons. "Meat eating is largely considered a problem-solver in terms of energy, but, in retrospect, it is clear that carnivory must impose a delicate balance between how much brain and body a species can afford," said Herculano-Houzel. Hunting requires a lot of energy, particularly for large predators, and the intervals between successful kills are unpredictable. That explains why large meat-eating carnivorans like lions spend most of their time resting and sleeping. In terms of energy, the brain is the most expensive organ in the body and its requirements are proportional to the number of neurons. It also needs energy continuously. As a consequence, the quantity of meat that large hunters can kill and consume and the intermittent nature of feeding appears to limit their brain development. The study's findings also challenge the prevailing view that domesticated animals have smaller brains than their wild cousins. The ratios of brain size to body weight of the domestic species they analyzed -- ferret, cat and dog -- did not scale in a significantly different manner from those of their wild relatives -- mongoose, raccoon, hyena, lion and brown bear. The analysis also discovered that the raccoon was an outlier -- on the brainy side: It packs the same number of cortical neurons as a dog into a brain the size of a cat's. "Raccoons are not your typical carnivoran," said Herculano-Houzel. "They have a fairly small brain but they have as many neurons as you would expect to find in a primate ... and that's a lot of neurons." According to the neuroscientist, studying the brains of different species teaches an important lesson: "Diversity is enormous. Not every species is made the same way. Yes, there are recognizable patterns, but there are multiple ways that nature has found of putting brains together -- and we're trying to figure out what difference that makes." Video: Story Source: Vanderbilt University. "Sorry, Grumpy Cat: Study finds dogs are brainier than cats." ScienceDaily. www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/11/171129131341.htm (accessed November 29, 2017). Journal Reference: Débora J. Alvarenga, Kelly Lambert, Stephen C. Noctor, Fernanda Pestana, Mads F. Bertelsen, Paul Manger and Suzana Herculano-Houzel. Dogs have the most neurons, though not the largest brain: Trade-off between body mass and number of neurons in the cerebral cortex of large carnivoran species. Front. Neuroanat., 2017 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2017.00118 Abstract Carnivorans are a diverse group of mammals that includes carnivorous, omnivorous and herbivorous, domesticated and wild species, with a large range of brain sizes. Carnivory is one of several factors expected to be cognitively demanding for carnivorans due to a requirement to outsmart larger prey. On the other hand, large carnivoran species have high hunting costs and unreliable feeding patterns, which, given the high metabolic cost of brain neurons, might put them at risk of metabolic constraints regarding how many brain neurons they can afford, especially in the cerebral cortex. For a given cortical size, do carnivoran species have more cortical neurons than the herbivorous species they prey upon? We find they do not; carnivorans (cat, mongoose, dog, hyena, lion) share with non-primates, including artiodactyls (the typical prey of large carnivorans), roughly the same relationship between cortical mass and number of neurons, which suggests that carnivorans are subject to the same evolutionary scaling rules as other non-primate clades. However, there are a few important exceptions. Carnivorans stand out in that the usual relationship between larger body, larger cortical mass and larger number of cortical neurons only applies to small and medium-sized species, and not beyond dogs: we find that the golden retriever dog has more cortical neurons than the striped hyena, African lion and even brown bear, even though the latter species have up to 3 times larger cortices than dogs. Remarkably, the brown bear cerebral cortex, the largest examined, only has as many neurons as the ten times smaller cat cerebral cortex, although it does have the expected ten times as many non-neuronal cells in the cerebral cortex compared to the cat. We also find that raccoons have dog-like numbers of neurons in their cat-sized brain, which makes them comparable to primates in neuronal density. Comparison of domestic and wild species suggests that the neuronal composition of carnivoran brains is not affected by domestication. Instead, large carnivorans appear to be particularly vulnerable to metabolic constraints that impose a trade-off between body size and number of cortical neurons. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnana.2017.00118/abstract So the smartest Carnivoran is? |
![]() |
|
| Nergigante | Nov 30 2017, 03:27 PM Post #17 |
|
Carnivore
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]()
|
That's very Interesting, I knew intelligence/IQ was not automatically measured by the size of the brain. An example would be Crocodilians which have a small brain relative to size but are able to use tools in the wild. Edited by Nergigante, Nov 30 2017, 03:31 PM.
|
![]() |
|
| paul cooper | Nov 30 2017, 05:52 PM Post #18 |
|
Unicellular Organism
![]() ![]() ![]()
|
The most basic and first way to measure intelligence is by the brain to body mass ratio. Humans have the highest. Study shows brain to body mass matters, and sociality doesnt equal intelligence: http://www.futurity.org/intelligence-brain-size-1095812-2/ |
![]() |
|
| Inhumanum Rapax | Nov 30 2017, 11:24 PM Post #19 |
![]()
Parabola Vita
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]()
|
Taipan, that study is abit conflicting concerning bears considering what ursus has posted about their intelligence.
Edited by Inhumanum Rapax, Nov 30 2017, 11:25 PM.
|
![]() |
|
| Meancat | Dec 2 2017, 05:18 AM Post #20 |
|
Autotrophic Organism
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]()
|
Actually, tree shrews have a higher brain to body mass ratio than humans. The brain to body mass ratio is biased in favor of smaller animals. A mice and a human have brains that make up 1/40 of their body mass, but a human is more intelligent than a mouse obviously. |
![]() |
|
| paul cooper | Dec 2 2017, 05:28 AM Post #21 |
|
Unicellular Organism
![]() ![]() ![]()
|
I know, but actually mice are very clever and intelligent.. one of the smartest actually. Why do you think they use mostly mice for medical testing? "Another reason rodents are used as models in medical testing is that their genetic, biological and behavior characteristics closely resemble those of humans, and many symptoms of human conditions can be replicated in mice and rats." https://www.google.com/amp/s/amp.livescience.com/32860-why-do-medical-researchers-use-mice.html I can definitely cite my on experiences on that from dealing with it lol. But the animals with the highest ratio tends to be the smartest and most intelligent. |
![]() |
|
| Mammuthus | Dec 2 2017, 09:35 AM Post #22 |
|
Proboscidean Enthusiast
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]()
|
Whales and dolphins lead 'human-like lives' thanks to big brains, says study The cultural brain hypothesis of human development could also explain cetaceans forming friendships – and even gossiping ![]() Life is not so different beneath the ocean waves. Bottlenose dolphins use simple tools, orcas call each other by name, and sperm whales talk in local dialects. Many cetaceans live in tight-knit groups and spend a good deal of time at play. That much scientists know. But in a new study, researchers compiled a list of the rich behaviours spotted in 90 different species of dolphins, whales and porpoises, and found that the bigger the species’ brain, the more complex – indeed, the more “human-like” – their lives are likely to be. This suggests that the “cultural brain hypothesis” – the theory that suggests our intelligence developed as a way of coping with large and complex social groups – may apply to whales and dolphins, as well as humans. The researchers gathered records of dolphins producing signature whistles for dolphins that are absent Writing in the journal, Nature Ecology and Evolution, the researchers claim that complex social and cultural characteristics, such as hunting together, developing regional dialects and learning from observation, are linked to the expansion of the animals’ brains – a process known as encephalisation. "The researchers gathered records of dolphins playing with humpback whales, helping fishermen with their catches, and even producing signature whistles for dolphins that are absent – suggesting the animals may even gossip." Another common behaviour was adult animals raising unrelated young. “There is the saying that ‘it takes a village to raise a child’ [and that] seems to be true for both whales and humans,” said Michael Muthukrishna, an economic psychologist and co-author on the study at the London School of Economics. ![]() Like humans, the cetaceans, a group made up of dolphins, whales and porpoises, are thought to do most of their learning socially rather than individually, which could explain why some species learn more complex behaviours than others. “Those predominantly found alone or in small groups had the smallest brains,” the researchers led by Susanne Shultz at the University of Manchester wrote. Luke Rendell, a biologist at the University of St Andrews who was not involved in the study, but has done work on sperm whales and their distinctive dialects, warned against anthropomorphising and making animals appear to be like humans. “There is a risk of sounding like there is a single train line, with humans at the final station and other animals on their way of getting there. The truth is that every animal responds to their own evolutionary pressures,” he said. “There is definitely a danger in comparing other animals to humans, especially with the data available. But what we can say for sure, is that this cultural-brain hypothesis we tested is present in primates and in cetaceans,” Muthukrishna said. There was still much more to learn, though, he added. “Studies with underwater mammals are difficult and vastly underfunded, so there is so much we don’t know about these fascinating animals,” he said. The fascination, however, should not only be interesting for people studying animals. “We don’t have to look at other planets to look for aliens, because we know that underwater there are these amazing species with so many parallels to us in their complex behaviours,” said Muthukrishna. ‘It could have been Mexico’: the joy of whale-watching in Yorkshire Read more Studying evolutionarily distinct animals such as cetaceans could act as a control group for studying intelligence in general, and so help the understanding of our own intellect. “It is interesting to think that whale and human brains are different in their structure but have brought us to the same patterns in behaviour,” Rendell said. “The extent of how this is close to humans can educate us about evolutionary forces in general.” However, Muthukrishna points out that intelligence is always driven by the environment an animal finds itself in. “Each environment presents a different set of challenges for an animal. When you are above water, you learn how to tackle fire, for example,” he said. “As smart as whales are, they will never learn to light a spark.” https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/oct/16/whales-and-dolphins-human-like-societies-thanks-to-their-big-brains |
![]() |
|
| Taipan | Feb 16 2018, 08:12 PM Post #23 |
![]()
Administrator
![]()
|
Birds and primates share brain cell types linked to intelligence February 15, 2018, University of Chicago Medical Center ![]() Credit: CC0 Public Domain Neuronal cell types in the brains of birds linked to goal-directed behaviors and cognition are similar to cells in the mammalian neocortex, the large, layered structure on the outer surface of the brain where most higher-order processing takes place. In a new study, published this week in the journal Current Biology, scientists from the University of Chicago show that some neurons in bird brains form the same kind of circuitry and have the same molecular signature as cells that enable connectivity between different areas of the mammalian neocortex. The researchers found that alligators share these cell types as well, suggesting that while mammal, bird and reptile brains have very different anatomical structures, they operate using the same shared set of brain cell types. "Birds are more intelligent than you think, and they do clever things. So, the question is: What kind of brain circuitry are they using?" said Clifton Ragsdale, PhD, professor of neurobiology at UChicago and senior author of the study. "What this research shows is that they're using the same cell types with the same kinds of connections we see in the neocortex, but with a very different kind of organization." Both the mammalian neocortex and a structure in the bird brain called the dorsal ventricular ridge (DVR) develop from an embryonic region called the telencephalon. However, the two regions mature into very different shapes. The neocortex is made up of six distinct layers while the DVR contains large clusters of neurons called nuclei. Because of this different anatomy, many scientists proposed that the bird DVR does not correspond to the mammalian cortex but is instead analogous to another mammalian brain structure called the amygdala. In 2012, Ragsdale and his team confirmed a 50-year-old hypothesis by University of California San Diego neuroscientist Harvey Karten that proposed the DVR performs a similar function to the neocortex, but with dramatically different anatomy. In that study, the UChicago researchers matched genetic markers of the "input" and "output" neurons of the mammalian neocortex with genes expressed in several bird DVR nuclei. In the new study, led by graduate student Steven Briscoe, the team found that other populations of neurons in the bird DVR share molecular signatures with neocortical intratelencephalic cells, or IT neurons. These IT neurons form a critical link in the circuitry of the neocortex. They help communicate between different neocortical layers and across cortical areas from one side of the brain to the other. The team then extended their work from birds to reptiles and identified IT neurons in a similar place in the alligator DVR. "The structure of the avian DVR looks nothing like the mammalian neocortex, and this has historically been a huge problem in comparative neuroscience," Briscoe said. "Anatomists have debated how to compare the DVR and neocortex for over a century, and our identification of IT neurons in the bird DVR helps to explain how such different brain structures can give rise to similar behaviors." The research suggests an interesting possibility that birds and primates evolved intelligence independently, developing vastly different brain structures but starting with the same shared sets of cell types. "The input cell types, the output cell types and the intratelencephalic cell types are all conserved. They're not just found in mammals, which we knew, but in non-avian reptiles like alligators and avian reptiles, or birds," Ragsdale said. "It begins to clarify where and how in evolution we got this fantastic structure, the neocortex." https://phys.org/news/2018-02-birds-primates-brain-cell-linked.html Journal Reference: Clifton W. Ragsdale. Neocortical Association Cell Types in the Forebrain of Birds and Alligators. Current Biology, 2018; DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2018.01.036 Highlights • RNA-seq identifies neocortical intratelencephalic (IT) neurons in the avian brain • IT neurons populate the avian mesopallium but not the nidopallium or the arcopallium • Gene expression demonstrates IT cell types in the alligator dorsal telencephalon • IT neurons were present in the last common ancestor of birds and mammals Summary The avian dorsal telencephalon has two vast territories, the nidopallium and the mesopallium, both of which have been shown to contribute substantially to higher cognitive functions. From their connections, these territories have been proposed as equivalent to mammalian neocortical layers 2 and 3, various neocortical association areas, or the amygdala, but whether these are analogies or homologies by descent is unknown. We investigated the molecular profiles of the mesopallium and the nidopallium with RNA-seq. Gene expression experiments established that the mesopallium, but not the nidopallium, shares a transcription factor network with the intratelencephalic class of neocortical neurons, which are found in neocortical layers 2, 3, 5, and 6. Experiments in alligators demonstrated that these neurons are also abundant in the crocodilian cortex and form a large mesopallium-like structure in the dorsal ventricular ridge. Together with previous work, these molecular findings indicate a homology by descent for neuronal cell types of the avian dorsal telencephalon with the major excitatory cell types of mammalian neocortical circuits: the layer 4 input neurons, the deep layer output neurons, and the multi-layer intratelencephalic association neurons. These data raise the interesting possibility that avian and primate lineages evolved higher cognitive abilities independently through parallel expansions of homologous cell populations. |
![]() |
|
| Ursus arctos | Feb 19 2018, 11:23 AM Post #24 |
|
Autotrophic Organism
![]()
|
Hmm. Definitely disagrees with what I've said about bear intelligence (arguing that it is high), but supports what I said about bears being well coordinated. ![]() The total number of neurons and the cerebellum are large. I wonder how important things like life history of the individuals are to this. I would guess that the neocortex of a lion and bear raised in a zoo would be atrophied compared to ones that lived their life in the wild. "African lion (Panthera leo, n = 1) and brown bear (Ursus arctos, n = 1)...the banded mongoose, African lion and brown bear specimens were obtained from the Copenhagen Zoo after being euthanized with sodium pentobarbital (i.v) in line with management decisions of the zoo; raccoons were wild caught in Cook County, IL, United States, with permission from The Cook County Forest Preserve Field Office in Chicago, IL, United States as part of their routine pathogen surveillance trapping; the striped hyena specimen was from an adult female that was obtained from the Saudi Wildlife Authority following veterinary euthanasia for unrelated medical reasons." https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnana.2017.00118/full |
![]() |
|
| Cat | Mar 4 2018, 04:23 AM Post #25 |
|
Omnivore
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]()
|
Yes, in zoos they would get less stimulation. On the other side, I think animals raised in circuses would perhaps receive even more stimulation than wild ones, being trained to perform difficult exercises and interact with an unusual environment. All in all, the results of the table are quite surprising, especially for bears, which are regarded as very smart carnivores. One should notice however that the data for lion and bear were drawn from a single specimen each, so they might be not representative for their respective species. As a side note, I hope they didn't euthanize the animals just to perform this study. |
![]() |
|
| Warsaw2014 | Mar 14 2018, 02:27 AM Post #26 |
|
Herbivore
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]()
|
Does Size Matter—for Brains? Turns out some species are better endowed than we are in key cognitive regions https://static.scientificamerican.com/sciam/cache/file/AAD83C25-CDDF-4A7C-A0D6DBCFCE47AAA5_source.jpg ![]() A 2014 study of 10 long-finned pilot whales from the Faeroe Islands plays havoc with this hypothesis. Caught as part of a local hunt in the cold waters of the North Atlantic between Scotland and Iceland, these graceful mammals—also known as blackfish—are actually dolphins. The number of nerve cells making up their highly convolved neocortex was estimated in a few sample slices and then extrapolated to the entire structure. The total came to an astonishing 37.2 billion neurons. Astonishing because this implies that the long-finned pilot whale has about twice as many neocortical neurons as humans do! If what matters for cognitive performance is the number of neocortical neurons, these dolphins should be smarter than all other extant creatures, including us. Whereas the highly playful and social dolphins exhibit a variety of skills, including the ability to recognize themselves in a mirror, they do not possess language or any readily discernible powers of abstraction that stand out from those of other nonhuman animals. So what gives? Is the complexity of the nerve cells themselves substantially less than cells found in people, or is the way these neurons communicate or learn less sophisticated? We don't know. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/does-size-matter-for-brains/ Understanding of object properties by sloth bears, Melursus ursinus ursinus Recent studies have shown that several species within the Carnivore order show impressive cognitive skills. However, bears, especially sloth bears, have received little attention with regard to their cognitive abilities. Here we presented seven sloth bears with three tasks to test their object permanence, short-term memory and ability to use acoustic cues to infer food location. In the object permanence test, subjects saw an object disappear in one of the three holes of a tree trunk. Bears retrieved the food in the correct hole significantly above chance, suggesting that they have some basic understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible. To study sloth bears' short-term memory, we used different time delays (30 s, 60 s, 2 min) between the object's disappearance and the subject's retrieval. Bears performed at chance levels in all conditions. In the acoustic cues test, the experimenter shook one of two identical opaque containers, only one of which had been baited: when the baited container was shaken, this made a noise and thus revealed the presence of food inside; when the unbaited container was shaken, there was no noise, revealing by exclusion the presence of food in the other container. In both cases, bears selected the baited container significantly above chance. As sloth bears are a mainly insectivorous solitary species, good performance in the object permanence and acoustic cue tests suggests that their cognitive skills may be the result of foraging challenges rather than social ones. Failure in the short-term memory test, instead, may suggest that memory for short-term punctual events has little evolutionary significance for bears, although further studies are needed to draw definitive conclusions. 321945826_Understanding_of_object_properties_by_sloth_bears_Melursus_ursinus_ursinus Edited by Warsaw2014, Mar 14 2018, 02:33 AM.
|
![]() |
|
| Ursus arctos | Mar 24 2018, 02:10 AM Post #27 |
|
Autotrophic Organism
![]()
|
I wouldn't bet on circus animals having larger animals. Some parts of the brain may be larger -- could be more used than their wild counterparts -- but many of they wouldn't be replicating many of their natural behaviors -- things like navigating a territory, tracking rivals, mates, prey, etc --- and still experience a lot of time locked up. My guess would lean toward circus animals having smaller brains too. Anyway: Our results show that captive lions and tigers tend to have smaller brains (c. 3.5–10.5% actual volume without standardizing for the skull size – see Table 1) than those of wild ones. Although we do not know for how many generations these animals have been bred in captivity, we assume that animals with known geographical origins are probably wild-caught, although they may have been reared in captivity, which could have affected their skeletal development. If so, most captive animals in this study are wild-caught and statistically significant decreases in relative brain size occurred within animals' lifetimes. Hollister (1917) observed that four wild-caught, captive-reared East African lions had smaller brains (by c. 20% actual volume) than six wild lions of similar ages from similar locations. Therefore, a substantial reduction in brain size may occur in captive-reared wild animals without genetic change. https://academic.oup.com/biolinnean/article/98/1/85/2235978 Of course, this doesn't say anything about the distribution of missing brain volume (eg, how much smaller are their neocortexes?). Some googling may find a study answering the question for another species. At the very least it seems hard to argue that measurements on n=1 captive lion or brown bear is going to generalize well to their wild counterparts. Also, it thankfully doesn't sound like the animals were euthanized for that study (although "in line with management decisions" is ambiguous): Ferret, cat and dog individuals were bred in captivity, and are considered to represent domesticated species; the banded mongoose, African lion and brown bear specimens were obtained from the Copenhagen Zoo after being euthanized with sodium pentobarbital (i.v) in line with management decisions of the zoo; raccoons were wild caught in Cook County, IL, United States, with permission from The Cook County Forest Preserve Field Office in Chicago, IL, United States as part of their routine pathogen surveillance trapping; the striped hyena specimen was from an adult female that was obtained from the Saudi Wildlife Authority following veterinary euthanasia for unrelated medical reasons. Cat and dogs were donated by their owners after the natural death of the animals from non-neurological causes. Edited by Ursus arctos, Mar 24 2018, 02:14 AM.
|
![]() |
|
| 1 user reading this topic (1 Guest and 0 Anonymous) | |
| « Previous Topic · Zoological Debate & Discussion · Next Topic » |
- Pages:
- 1
- 2











![]](http://b2.ifrm.com/28122/87/0/p701956/pipright.png)




Neocortical_Association_Cell_Types_in_the_Forebrain_of_Birds_and_Alligators.pdf (3.47 MB)


9:48 AM Jul 11