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Lion - Panthera leo
Topic Started: Jan 7 2012, 08:37 PM (37,435 Views)
SidTheLionKing
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Unicellular Organism
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The Panthera leo or Lion Male subspecies that can grow pretty big in particular are the Eastern/Masai, Southeast African/Transvaal, Southwest African/Katanga and Northeast Congo. These four subspecies of Male lions can weigh on average from 140.7-249.5 kg (310-550 lbs). That's pretty impressive for these four African male lion subspecies.
Eastern/Masai African Lion Length of 2.5-3.0 M (8.5-9.8 ft) 145-205 Kg (319-451 lbs)
Posted Image
Southeast African/Transvaal African Lion 2.6-3.20 M (8.5-10.4 ft) 150-250 Kg (330-551 lbs)
Posted Image
Southwest African/Katanga African Lion 2.5-3.10 M (8.5-10.1 ft) 140-242 Kg (308-533 lbs)
Posted Image
Northeast Congo African Lion Not much is known about this subspecies but I hear that they can get as big as the other Eastern African Lion subspecies
Posted Image
Edited by SidTheLionKing, Sep 28 2015, 03:13 AM.
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Taipan
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Lions Are Disappearing Across Africa

by Tia Ghose, Senior Writer | October 26, 2015 03:00pm ET

Posted Image
A lion relaxes on the grass.
Credit: Billy Dodson | African Wildlife Foundation

Lions are disappearing from most of the African continent, and the decline is especially evident in West Africa, according to new research.

The lion population has has been in decline since 1992, largely because of conflicts with native herders and declines in lions' prey species, the new survey found. Almost two-thirds of the more than 8,000 lions studied live in populations facing decline. West African lion populations are likely to drop by half in over the next two decades, if conservation measures aren't stepped up, the study found.

"A lot of the African bush is now silent of the lion's roar," said study co-author Luke Hunter, president of Panthera, an organization dedicated to the conservation of big cats. "We're losing that characteristic emblem of African wilderness."

Apex predators

Past studies of African lion populations have produced a spotty picture of the apex predators' numbers. For instance, a 2013 study found that lion populations had plummeted in Uganda, and a 2014 study suggested they faced being eliminated from West Africa. But in other areas, lions were doing well. The lion had virtually disappeared from some parts of South Africa, but after reintroduction and conservation efforts, the iconic predator prowls in 50 areas where it was once scarce, Hunter said.

To get a more complete picture of the African lion's fate, Hunter and his colleagues looked at 8,221 lions in 47 different populations across Africa going back to 1990. They found steep drops in the lion population in western and central Africa. Over the next 20 years, those regions can expect to lose half their lions if current trends continue, while much of East Africa can expect to lose a third of their lions at the current pace, the researchers reported in a new study published today (Oct. 26) in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

But it isn't all bad news for the big cats: In South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Namibia, lion populations have been steady or increasing. Most of those lions were in fenced-in reserves, and the countries had thriving wildlife tourism economies and thus had devoted significant resources to conservation.

Factors driving lion decline

Two factors are driving the decline in lions, the researchers suspect. First, pastoralists who manage herds of animals may trap and kill the beasts because they threaten their livestock.

"If they're killing livestock, people really move heaven and earth to get rid of them; they just hunt them down," Hunter said.

Second, poachers use wire snares and other traps to indiscriminately capture lions' traditional prey species — everything from zebra to wildebeest — and then sell that bushmeat in commercial markets in bigger cities. With fewer animals to hunt, lions are struggling to survive, the study found.

The trophy hunting that took down Cecil the lion is, at most, a small contributor to lion population declines, Hunter said.

"Even if trophy hunting of lions was banned today, it still wouldn't avert the decline, because the factors driving the decline are much bigger," Hunter said.

In general, lions tended to fare better in areas with low population densities, such as Botswana and Namibia, countries that also have thriving wildlife tourism economies. These countries' lion populations are likely doing well because they don't butt up against as many people, and because those countries pour more money into creating fenced-off reserves and deterring poachers, Hunter said.

Saving the lion

Protecting lions in densely populated areas such as West Africa — which also hosts some of the poorest countries in the world — will be a bigger challenge, as many of those countries have scarce resources to address even the human population needs, Hunter said.

But those countries still have options, Hunter said. One of the simplest measures is to teach people methods to protect their herds, such as building better fences or moving their livestock into sturdy corrals at night, Hunter said. These efforts have the benefit of enriching the local human populations as well, he added.

To maintain prey species, regions with struggling lion populations need to fund more conservation workers to patrol wildlife refuges and to remove snares when they see them. Although that's a pricey endeavor, it will benefit species other than lions, from elephants to rhinos, Hunter said.

In addition, while African countries could devote more resources to conservation, Western aid groups may need to increase support if they want to see the iconic symbol of Africa survive, he said.

http://www.livescience.com/52588-lions-disappearing-from-africa.html




Journal Reference:
Hans Bauer, Guillaume Chapron, Kristin Nowell, Philipp Henschel, Paul Funston, Luke T. B. Hunter, David W. Macdonald, and Craig Packer
Lion (Panthera leo) populations are declining rapidly across Africa, except in intensively managed areas
PNAS 2015 : 1500664112v1-201500664.

Abstract
We compiled all credible repeated lion surveys and present time series data for 47 lion (Panthera leo) populations. We used a Bayesian state space model to estimate growth rate-λ for each population and summed these into three regional sets to provide conservation-relevant estimates of trends since 1990. We found a striking geographical pattern: African lion populations are declining everywhere, except in four southern countries (Botswana, Namibia, South Africa, and Zimbabwe). Population models indicate a 67% chance that lions in West and Central Africa decline by one-half, while estimating a 37% chance that lions in East Africa also decline by one-half over two decades. We recommend separate regional assessments of the lion in the World Conservation Union (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species: already recognized as critically endangered in West Africa, our analysis supports listing as regionally endangered in Central and East Africa and least concern in southern Africa. Almost all lion populations that historically exceeded ∼500 individuals are declining, but lion conservation is successful in southern Africa, in part because of the proliferation of reintroduced lions in small, fenced, intensively managed, and funded reserves. If management budgets for wild lands cannot keep pace with mounting levels of threat, the species may rely increasingly on these southern African areas and may no longer be a flagship species of the once vast natural ecosystems across the rest of the continent.

http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2015/10/21/1500664112.abstract
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Taipan
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Once Thought Extinct, 'Lost' Group of Lions Discovered in Africa
Scientists on an expedition found lions living in a remote corner of Ethiopia and Sudan, raising hopes for the embattled species.


Posted Image
This camera trap image shows a lion in Alatash National Park in Ethiopia, the first proof of their existence there.
PHOTOGRAPH BY BORN FREE

By Brian Clark Howard
PUBLISHED FEBRUARY 2, 2016

Lions have disappeared from much of Africa, but for the past few years scientists have wondered if the big cats were hanging on in remote parts of Sudan and Ethiopia. The region’s inaccessibility and political instability have made surveys difficult.

But scientists released a report Monday documenting, with hard evidence, the discovery of "lost lions."

A team with Oxford University’s Wildlife Conservation Research Unit (WildCRU), supported by the charity Born Free, spent two nights in November camping in Alatash National Park in northwest Ethiopia, on the Ethiopia-Sudan border. The researchers set out six camera traps that capturing images of lions, and they identified lion tracks.

The scientists concluded that lions likely also live in the larger, adjacent Dinder National Park across the border in Sudan. The International Union for Conservation of Nature had previously considered the area a "possible range" for the species, and local people had reported seeing lions in the area, but no one had presented definitive evidence.

"It's great to have confirmation of this suspected population, especially since we don't have a lot of information on this area," says Luke Dollar, a big cat biologist and National Geographic explorer with the Big Cats Initiative, who was not involved in the study.

Dollar adds that the lion population may be isolated from other groups in Africa, putting it at risk of inbreeding. It's also likely the lions face danger from poaching and snares set out by local people to catch other types of bushmeat, such as their prey species. "Lions are often a bycatch," he notes.

The Oxford team—which is the same group that had studied the doomed Cecil the lion in Zimbabwe before he was killed by a trophy hunter—estimates in its report that the border region could be home to as many as 100 to 200 lions, with 27 to 54 of those being in Alatash. The population is probably limited by the lack of surface water and low prey densities.

But Dollar cautions that the study is not peer reviewed and is based on a small sample size and short expedition, making it difficult to accurately estimate the population.

The lions likely hung on there because the remote area has relatively low human density and a fairly strong presence from the Ethiopian parks service, says Luke Hunter, the president of big cat conservation group Panthera, who was also not involved in the study. "Lions are pretty good at maintaining a foothold as long as the human pressure on them isn't too great," says Hunter.

Hunter calls the study "good news for lions" and says "there are still huge chunks of Africa where we think lions may occur but we don't have good information." Besides Sudan, he lists Angola and parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo as particularly promising.

Dollar hopes scientists will continue to study these lions, "and what we do with this information, to promote the longterm health of the lion, is the next step."

Lions’ current range has shrunk to eight percent of their historic homeland, and their population is thought to have declined by 50 to 75 percent since 1980, to less than 20,000, due to problems such as habitat loss, poaching, and other conflicts with people.

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/02/160202-ethiopia-sudan-lost-lions-alatash-national-park-dinder/
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Taipan
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Lions in West and Central Africa apparently unique

Date: August 11, 2016
Source: Leiden, Universiteit

Posted Image
Lions in West and Central Africa form a unique group, only distantly related to lions in East and Southern Africa. Biologists at Leiden University confirm this in an article published in Scientific Reports.
Credit: © crazycolors / Fotolia

Lions in West and Central Africa form a unique group, only distantly related to lions in East and Southern Africa. Biologists at Leiden University confirm this in an article published in Scientific Reports.

Genetic data

In this study, the researchers gathered a genetic dataset of lion populations covering a total of 22 countries. This included samples from each remaining lion population in West and Central Africa, a region where lions and other wildlife are rapidly declining as a consequence of the increasing human population. The researchers managed to gather all the information by teaming up with other people in the field and local conservationists.

300,000 years ago

Based on the genetic data, it was estimated that the split between the two major groups that can be identified in the lion must have occurred 300,000 years ago. To explain what happened in their evolution, the researchers made a reconstruction of African climatological history. It seems that periodic expansions of the rain forest and the desert drove lions into isolated pockets of suitable habitat, where the different genetic lineages originated that can still be observed today.

Other mammals

This influenced not only the patterns we observe in the lion, but also in other large mammals such as giraffe, buffalo, hartebeest, cheetah and spotted hyena. A general pattern is emerging that shows that many large African savannah mammals show very similar arrangements, with unique lineages in West and Central Africa.

Reason for concern

The strong declines in wildlife populations in large parts of West and Central Africa are therefore a reason for major concern. The fact that this region seems to harbour a lot of unique genetic lineages makes conservation in the area extremely important. A delegation from Leiden University will participate in the IUCN World Conservation Congress in September 2016, and will lead a Side Event that aims to establish a Species Action Plan for West and Central Africa. The researchers hope that this will facilitate coordination and funding of projects in the region.

Story Source: Leiden, Universiteit. "Lions in West and Central Africa apparently unique." ScienceDaily. www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/08/160811120559.htm (accessed August 12, 2016).




Journal Reference:
L. D. Bertola, H. Jongbloed, K. J. van der Gaag, P. de Knijff, N. Yamaguchi, H. Hooghiemstra, H. Bauer, P. Henschel, P. A. White, C. A. Driscoll, T. Tende, U. Ottosson, Y. Saidu, K. Vrieling, H. H. de Iongh. Phylogeographic Patterns in Africa and High Resolution Delineation of Genetic Clades in the Lion (Panthera leo). Scientific Reports, 2016; 6: 30807 DOI: 10.1038/srep30807

Abstract
Comparative phylogeography of African savannah mammals shows a congruent pattern in which populations in West/Central Africa are distinct from populations in East/Southern Africa. However, for the lion, all African populations are currently classified as a single subspecies (Panthera leo leo), while the only remaining population in Asia is considered to be distinct (Panthera leo persica). This distinction is disputed both by morphological and genetic data. In this study we introduce the lion as a model for African phylogeography. Analyses of mtDNA sequences reveal six supported clades and a strongly supported ancestral dichotomy with northern populations (West Africa, Central Africa, North Africa/Asia) on one branch, and southern populations (North East Africa, East/Southern Africa and South West Africa) on the other. We review taxonomies and phylogenies of other large savannah mammals, illustrating that similar clades are found in other species. The described phylogeographic pattern is considered in relation to large scale environmental changes in Africa over the past 300,000 years, attributable to climate. Refugial areas, predicted by climate envelope models, further confirm the observed pattern. We support the revision of current lion taxonomy, as recognition of a northern and a southern subspecies is more parsimonious with the evolutionary history of the lion.

http://www.nature.com/articles/srep30807
Attached to this post:
Attached File Phylogeographic_Patterns_in_Africa_and_High_Resolution_Delineation_of_Genetic_Clades_in_the_Lion__Panthera_leo_.pdf (1.54 MB)
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chui
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Taipan
Aug 12 2016, 04:57 PM
Other mammals

This influenced not only the patterns we observe in the lion, but also in other large mammals such as giraffe, buffalo, hartebeest, cheetah and spotted hyena. A general pattern is emerging that shows that many large African savannah mammals show very similar arrangements, with unique lineages in West and Central Africa.

Reason for concern

The strong declines in wildlife populations in large parts of West and Central Africa are therefore a reason for major concern. The fact that this region seems to harbour a lot of unique genetic lineages makes conservation in the area extremely important. A delegation from Leiden University will participate in the IUCN World Conservation Congress in September 2016, and will lead a Side Event that aims to establish a Species Action Plan for West and Central Africa. The researchers hope that this will facilitate coordination and funding of projects in the region.
Good find. IMO a more comprehensive examination of the phylogeny of leopards will also reveal a similar split, with the West/Central African leopards being distinct from East/Southern African leopards. The current grouping of all African leopards into one subspecies is based on fairly limited material.
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Rams_Lord
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@Taipan

What do you think of this?
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/02/black-mane-ethiopian-lions-video-endangered-species/

Is it not certain if they are a subspecies yet?
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Warsaw2014
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Reversible anaesthesia of free-ranging lions (Panthera leo) in Zimbabwe
Å Fahlmana*, A Loveridgeb
, C Wenhamc
, C Foggind
, J M Arnemoe,f and G Nymana

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Animals, drugs, and darting equipment
Twenty-one anaesthetic events of 17
free-ranging lions (5 males and 12 females)
were studied in Hwange National
Park and Malilangwe Trust in Zimbabwe
between 2001 and 2005. The lions were
adults (>4 yr) or subadults (2–4 yr) and
body weight ranged between 169 and 211
kg in males and 105 and 165 kg in females.
Anaesthesia was conducted for fitting of
radio-collars or ear tags, or for testing for
bovine tuberculosis (Mycobacterium bovis).
Testing for tuberculosis necessitated
anaesthesia on 2 separate occasions
approximately 72 h apart. All individuals
were healthy, based on physical examination
during anaesthesia. During each
anaesthetic event, blood samples were
taken for storage of serum.
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/dedc/693714e82f1e940b33badec7438bcad9c2c6.pdf

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Taipan
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Recovering population of Zimbabwean African lions show low genetic diversity

February 7, 2018, Public Library of Science

Posted Image
Lion (Panthera leo). Credit: Regina Hart, Flickr

The lion population of Zimbabwe's Savé Valley Conservancy shows low genetic diversity despite improved numbers, according to a study published February 7, 2018 in the open-access journal PLOS ONE by Laura Tensen from the University of Johannesburg, South Africa, and colleagues based in the Savé Valley Conservancy.

The African lion (Panthera leo) population in the Savé Valley Conservancy of the Lowveld region of Zimbabwe fell to less than ten known individuals, until the 2005 introduction of ten new lions helped it recover to around 200 in 2016. But since this population originated from just a few individuals, there are concerns about potential low genetic diversity due to inbreeding. The authors of the present study genotyped a sample of 42 Savé Valley lions, using mitochondrial and nuclear markers to compare the genetic diversity of this population to that of other African lion populations.

The researchers found that the Savé Valley lion population appears to be the least genetically diverse of those in Zimbabwe's Lowveld region, with evidence of inbreeding. The population also appeared genetically distinct from others, likely because factors such as human development may have prevented the populations mixing.

Lion populations with low genetic diversity are known to be at risk for reduced fertility and increased death rates compared to more diverse populations. Given their findings, the authors suggest the introduction of new unrelated lions into the Savé Valley population may become necessary to enhance its genetic diversity and ensure its long-term future.

https://phys.org/news/2018-02-recovering-population-zimbabwean-african-lions.html




Journal Reference:
Tensen L, Groom RJ, Khuzwayo J, Jansen van Vuuren B (2018) The genetic tale of a recovering lion population (Panthera leo) in the Savé Valley region (Zimbabwe): A better understanding of the history and managing the future. PLoS ONE 13(2): e0190369. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0190369

Abstract
The rapid decline of the African lion (Panthera leo) has raised conservation concerns. In the Savé Valley Conservancy (SVC), in the Lowveld of Zimbabwe, lions were presumably reduced to approximately 5 to 10 individuals. After ten lions were reintroduced in 2005, the population has recovered to over 200 lions in 2016. Although the increase of lions in the SVC seems promising, a question remains whether the population is genetically viable, considering their small founding population. In this study, we document the genetic diversity in the SVC lion population using both mitochondrial and nuclear genetic markers, and compare our results to literature from other lion populations across Africa. We also tested whether genetic diversity is spatially structured between lion populations residing on several reserves in the Lowveld of Zimbabwe. A total of 42 lions were genotyped successfully for 11 microsatellite loci. We confirmed that the loss of allelic richness (probably resulting from genetic drift and small number of founders) has resulted in low genetic diversity and inbreeding. The SVC lion population was also found to be genetically differentiated from surrounding population, as a result of genetic drift and restricted natural dispersal due to anthropogenic barriers. From a conservation perspective, it is important to avoid further loss of genetic variability in the SVC lion population and maintain evolutionary potential required for future survival. Genetic restoration through the introduction of unrelated individuals is recommended, as this will increase genetic heterozygosity and improve survival and reproductive fitness in populations.

http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0190369
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Taipan
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Posted Image
"In this detailed how-to, a Panthera researcher reveals the most telling clues: physical features like nose color, mane growth, facial scarring, teeth color and wear, and jowl slackness. Knowing the age of these big cats can help scientists measure a population's vital signs--and help them ensure a vibrant future for the threatened species."
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AfriCat Hobatere Lion Research Project (AHLRP) Update 2016

Background

In Africa, lions are mainly restricted to larger parks, reserves, and the remaining wilderness areas in savannas, covering no more than 20–25 % of their historic range (IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group 2006b; Riggio et al. 2012). Range collapse has been accompanied by plummeting lion numbers. Reliable population estimates for elusive, often nocturnal predators are notoriously difficult, but a variety of estimates converge at roughly 32,000 (Riggio et al. 2012). Rates of decline are alarming, as the number of African lions has fallen 30% over the past two decades (three lion generations) and perhaps by 48.5% since 1980 (IUCN 2012). Conflicts with people are overwhelmingly responsible for the range and population collapse of lions. Retaliatory killing in response to attacks on livestock and people (Patterson et al. 2004; Packer et al. 2005), native prey depletion through overgrazing and bushmeat harvest (Burton et al. 2011), and loss and fragmentation of habitat (Hunter et al. 2007; Kiffner et al. 2009; Riggio et al. 2012) are the most widely acknowledged causes of lion endangerment (IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group 2006b; pers. obs.).



Lion Conservation Units (LCU)

Conserving large predators with extensive, multinational ranges is an international enterprise requiring assessment, coordination, and prioritization. The Cat Specialist group of the World Conservation Union examined lion distribution and status in both West and Central Africa (2006a) and in Eastern and Southern Africa (2006b), modelling their approach on the successful hemispheric strategy for conserving jaguars, Panthera onca (Sanderson et al. 2002). They identified 66 areas in Eastern and Southern Africa that cover 61% of the lion’s known and possible range in the region. LCUs were not restricted to or based on protected areas, but many are associated with parks and reserves. Experts assessed viability, limiting factors, and threats for each of the LCUs, which are seen as management units for preserving lions in situ (IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group 2006b). This region of Africa is thought to support the vast majority of extant lions (Bauer and Van Der Merwe 2004), including all 10 "lion strongholds" (Riggio et al. 2012). Endangerment in African lions is typically direct, via survivorship, but theoretically there are genetic risks too (Bjo¨rklund 2003). Range collapse often produces small population size and, despite the lion’s impressive capacity for dispersal, a loss of genetic variability (O’Brien et al. 1987). Moreover, fencing parks and reserves to mitigate animal-human conflict interrupts natural patterns of migration and gene flow (Wildt et al. 1987; Hayward and Kerley 2009; Trinkel et al. 2011), which also reduces variability. Reduced genetic variation can have reproductive and other fitness consequences in lions and other large mammals. To safeguard species, it is critical to understand natural corridors to dispersal and gene flow and to identify instances where genetic continuity has been interrupted. Infectious diseases are also likely to move along these corridors.

Stable Data mainly from IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group (2006b)

LCU categories are: I, viable; II, potentially viable; or III, significant but of doubtful viability. 'Percent gazetted' refers to the proportion under any form of legal protection (national park or reserve, hunting concession, or conservancy). Arial measurements obtained from metadata used in preparing the maps (www.panthera.org)

For the purpose of gathering evidence of long-distance movements by lions in Namibia, especially in this case, the natural dispersal from east (Etosha NP) to west (Kunene Region) and vice versa: A lion branded in Etosha National Park (#253) moved west to Kunene (also LCU 44); more generally, LCU 44 is clearly comprised of two genetically distinctive populations: the Kunene region and Etosha National Park (Genetic perspectives on "Lion Conservation Units" in Eastern and Southern Africa, J. M. Dubach • M. B. Briggs • P. A. White • B. A. Ament • B. D. Patterson).

The Namibia Large Carnivore Atlas (Ministry of Environment & Tourism, Large Carnivore Atlas 2012) estimates the Namibian population at 1113 – 1644 lions in three density distribution categories: low, medium and high (see distribution Map below). The Kunene and Etosha sub-populations are isolated from the Caprivi/Khaudom sub-population. The Hobatere Concession Area (hereafter referred to as Hobatere) lies adjacent to western Etosha, with the Hobatere lion population falling within the Etosha sub-population and in the medium to high density category, according to the distribution maps published by Namibian Large Carnivore Atlas (2012).
Lions (Panthera leo) move in and out of Hobatere on a regular basis, along the southern, western and northern boundaries as well as between western Etosha National Park and Hobatere; lions also regularly move through the Etosha boundary fence onto adjacent communal farmland (comprising approximately six communal conservancies) and approximately fifty free-hold livestock / game farms. Communal livestock farmers of the #Khoa di //Hoas and Ehirovipuka Conservancies, amongst others, are affected by this farmer-predator conflict, regularly reporting lion movement onto farmland especially where the boundary fence is porous. Lion sightings, tracks as well as livestock killed by lions, are common on these border farms. The frequency of lions crossing the Hobatere boundary and the establishment of independent populations outside of the park, are little known; however, data gathered during Phase 3 of the AHLRP (2015-2016) is able to show range and cross-border movement on ten lions. The extent of livestock loss and resultant lion mortality on adjacent farmland is sporadic; during Phase 3 of the HLRP, we were better equipped to report on incidents (see Table 7 Livestock Predation, ).



In 2009 the National Policy on Human-Wildlife Conflict (HWC) Management was implemented, whereby a balance should be established between conservation priorities and the needs of people living with wildlife. This Policy creates mechanisms for rural communities to manage and benefit from wildlife and other natural resources. The strategies of the policy include:

a) Research and Monitoring: "To carry out research on the social carrying capacity for certain species that can cause problems, which is determined by the conflicts they cause and the degree of tolerance shown by local residents."

b) "In order to manage HWC (the farmer-lion conflict) effectively and efficiently, it is crucial to have adequate data that is available in a usable form for key decision-makers."

c) Building Self-Reliance: "To build the capacity for all stakeholders to develop HWC management and mitigation plans and to implement appropriate mitigation methods."

d) Protected Areas: "To reduce the impact on neighbours of wildlife that leaves protected areas and cause problems."

Furthermore, the draft Lion Conservation Management Plan has an objective to "initiate targeted research on lion ecology, biology and management and mitigation of conflict".



Communal Conservancies have added substantially to the network of conservation areas in Namibia, but, as these areas are not fully protected in the same manner as national parks, it cannot be assumed that the natural resources are being sustained. The best indication of the impact of conservancies comes from recovery and increase of wildlife populations. Additionally, the status of large predators can be a useful indicator of the health of underlying wildlife populations.

Driven by increased food supply, the spatial expansion of lion in the conservancies of the north-western Kunene region has increased. While numbers of certain large carnivores have remained stable or increased, numbers of lions have steadily declined. The disproportional control of lion may be due to less tolerance of lion driven by fear rather than the actual negative impacts caused by lions. This is suggested by the response of communities to Human-Wildlife Conflict incidents where frequency of 'problem lions' being removed is completely out of proportion to the damage caused by lions; a negative consequence is that of all the predators, lion are probably the most valuable for trophy hunting and tourism (Namibia’s Communal Conservancies 2007 – Review of Progress)

The North-west (desert) lion population of Kunene Region is likewise being intensively monitored and although this population is continuous with the Etosha population, the understanding of the populations as well as the risks and conservation status differ. Population density and activity patterns in Hobatere were established by Dr P. Stander pre-2007. A number of individuals were collared but little information is available on post-2007 density and movement. The Hobatere Concession Area, which forms the corridor between the northwest and ENP, has been devoid of monitoring or research, in particular, since the departure of the Hobatere tourism concessionaires on 01 May 2011 until the start of the AfriCat Hobatere Lion Research Project in 2013.



Phase 1:

During Phase 1 (01 April 2013 – 31 March 2014, Permit # 1790/2013), this project

i) aimed to re-establish accurate current data on the demography of lions within Hobatere and the surrounding areas
ii) has provided initial data on the movement of lions into and out of Hobatere
iii) attempted to provide some of the driving forces which stimulate lions to move
iv) aimed to quantify both the degree of human-lion conflict and the impact it has on people living around Hobatere
v) Mitigation measures were analysed and the effectiveness of each measure was assessed
vi) After two years, resultant information is now available to effectively assist in the making of informed decisions as to how best to alleviate conflict and minimise livestock losses, while at the same time maximising conservation goals for the lion.

This Project is supported by The Okorusu Community Trust, The Hampton School, UK, The Amersfoort Wildlife Trust, Netherlands, Stichting SPOTS, Netherlands the ING 'Goede Doelenfonds voor medewerkers', Netherlands, The Putman Group, Netherlands, 'Stichting Vrienden Beekse Bergen en Dierenrijk', Netherlands, AfriCat UK, AfriCat America and the AfriCat Foundation, Namibia as well as donor individuals.
The distance between the Hobatere Lodge and Campsite (renamed Etosha Roadside) waterholes is approximately 11.6 km, the distance between Lodge waterhole and Tree House is approx. 4.6 km, Tree House to Campsite 14.5 km. Animals frequenting the Campsite Waterhole also make use of waterholes within Etosha-west: (the distances after each water point indicate distance from the Campsite {Roadside} waterhole): Rhino Bomas (approx. 4 km), Kaross-Hoek (approx.12.5 km), Kaross- Fontein (approx.10 km), Otjovazandu-Fontein (approx. 7.6 km), Equiinus (approx. 9 km), Renostervlei (approx. 27 km).



Phase 2:

During Phase 2 (01 July 2014 – 30 June 2015, Permit # 1938/2014), this project

i) aimed to re-establish accurate current data on the demography of lions within Hobatere and the surrounding areas: Lion population size and demography were evaluated through live observations and photographs taken by camera traps. The photographs taken by such cameras along with the information from the GPS-Satellite collars, showed that placing the cameras on roads and game trails only occasionally photographed lions. Even when lions were known to be in the areas close to the trail cameras they would not necessarily walk past the cameras. It was concluded that trail cameras placed at the three functional Hobatere waterholes (Roadside {prev. Campsite}, Lodge and Tree House, (see Map 3,), three bait-sites (Roadside dam, Airfield site and Tree House) and one other road and game-trail site (Mine Road/Hunters Road Gorge), providing a reliable indication of the population in the area. Multiple trail cameras were placed at each waterhole, covering every angle from which lions could approach the water; a number of trail cameras were placed further away from the water but within 50 metres of the waterhole, providing effective coverage of lions passing by.

Observations from trail cameras compared favourably with live observation records. As far as could be established in year 2 (01 July 2014 - 30 June 2015), the following individuals were identified: 2 adult males, 4 adult females, 11 Sub-Adults + 5 cubs = 22 lion



ii) has provided initial data on the movement of lions into and out of Hobatere: All collared lions were fitted with GPS- Satellite collars. These record the location of the lion every two hours and send that location via a satellite link to where we can access it almost immediately. The daily movements of the lions were recorded and described by linking the consecutive locations with straight lines, marking not the exact path taken by the lions but the shortest distance between known locations. The home ranges of the lions were described by plotting all the movement lines onto the same map.



iii) provided some of the driving forces which stimulate lions to move: Scientists expect Namibia's climate to continue to become hotter and drier, with a projected temperature increase of 3.6-10.8° F (2-6° C) by the end of this century. Lower and more variable rainfall is projected. And even if rainfall decreases only slightly from today's levels, evaporation typically increases as temperatures rise, so Namibia is likely to become even drier. As water becomes scarcer, the range and number of wildlife supported by Etosha and other national parks could decline.(Reid, H., L. Sahlén, J. MacGregor, and J. Stage. 2007. The economic impact of climate change in Namibia: How climate change will affect the contribution of Namibia's natural resources to its economy. Environmental Economics Program discussion paper 07-02. London: International Institute for Environment and Development.



a) It was established that during the annual dry season (June-January), the man-made water points within the Hobatere Concession Area and in western Etosha clearly influence lion movement. Since the start of the AfriCat Hobatere Lion Research Project (AHLRP) 2013, the study area has fallen within a below average rainfall region; it remains to be seen how movement may be affected once this region receives average to above-average rainfall;

b) prey-base availability and prey-base movement with regards to grazing and water: lions will follow herds of Hartmann’s Zebra and Oryx, moving across borders (park fences) from protected areas to livestock farming areas and back;

c) the illegal presence of large numbers of livestock (cattle and donkeys/horses) within the Hobatere Concession Area, habituate the lions to easy prey, often following these herds out of protected areas onto adjacent farmland, causing conflict;

d) the presence of intermittent culling (hunting) teams within Hobatere, caused lions to move outwards onto farmland;



iv) aimed to quantify both the degree of human-lion conflict and the impact it has on people living around Hobatere: Farmer-Lion Conflict along the borders of protected areas remains a challenge as Etosha NP and this protected area’s fences are porous, allowing back and forth movement of wildlife as well as livestock. AfriCat’s Livestock Protection Programmes offer support and guidance concerning livestock management, animal husbandry and improved protection methods; AfriCat has built 16 nocturnal, livestock kraals on communal farmland along the western Etosha and Hobatere borders, reducing livestock losses when farmers abide by the concept of herding; if domestic stock are left to graze at night, the AfriCat Lion Guards have difficulty protecting the said livestock from attack and losses to lions and hyaenas are inevitable. 2014-2015, reported livestock losses to lions totalled 24, with the loss of 10 lions. The continued drought has resulted in large numbers of livestock dying of hunger and thirst, coupled with increased losses to lions.



v) Mitigation measures were analysed and the effectiveness of each measure was assessed:
a) farmers in the lion-conflict zone or 'hot-spots' along the borders of Etosha and protected areas, reported the effectiveness of livestock kraals and the reduced loss of livestock;
b) the GPS-Satellite collar, early-warning system effectively provided reliable information as to lion locations, but many farmers failed to heed the warnings and in some instances, the ineffective communication system (intermittent mobile phone reception), failed to convey the warning in time.



vi) After two years, resultant information is now available to effectively assist in the making of informed decisions as to how best to alleviate conflict and minimise livestock losses, while at the same time maximising conservation goals for the lion: the proposed AfriCat livestock protection methods are effective if heeded by the farmers but the continued drought (year 3) has minimised the farmers’ willingness to accept change and advice. The need for better guidance by traditional and conservancy leaders, intensified by the absence of support from departments of Agriculture and Veterinary Services, has left farmers to their own devices, which exclude taking precautions against potential threat by conflict wildlife.

Phase 2 of the AHLRP was supported by The Okorusu Community Trust, The Hampton School, UK, The Amersfoort Wildlife Trust, Netherlands, Stichting SPOTS, Netherlands the ING 'Goede Doelenfonds voor medewerkers', Netherlands, The Putman Group, Netherlands, 'Stichting Vrienden Beekse Bergen en Dierenrijk', Netherlands, AfriCat UK, AfriCat America and the AfriCat Foundation, Namibia as well as donor individuals.
Phase 3: 01 July 2015 – 30 June 2016 {Report up to and including 29.02.2016}

Map 5 (below): AfriCat Hobatere Lion Research Project Study Site (darkened area), Phases 1-3; Hobatere Concession Area, Etosha-west (west of vertical line: Restricted Area), the Communal Conservancies of Ehirovipuka, Omatendeka & !Khoa di //Hoas, Etendeka + Palmwag Concession Areas and Free-hold farmland, southern boundary Etosha National Park
Key Questions / Hypotheses tested

1. Lion demography and population dynamics within the 34 000 ha Hobatere Concession Area and Etosha-west, including the extended study site of the Omatendeka Concession

For the purpose of this AHLRP report, the Etosha-west boundaries are defined as follows: i) western Etosha boundary fence from the south-western corner of the Kaross Block to the north-western corner (Omatambo Maue), ii) eastwards to Nomab Waterhole, including the iii) Dolomite Range, iv) Etosha southern boundary from farm Grenswag to Blyerus, and v) the Kaross Block



1.1. Lion Density & Population size

Between April 2011 and May 2013, no known lion monitoring and / or research took place in the 34 000 hectare Hobatere Concession Area; the AfriCat Hobatere Lion Research Project (hereafter AHLRP) was initiated May 2013, with no previous data on lion numbers available.

During Phase 1 (2013-2014), in order to establish lion presence, camera traps were strategically placed at the two functional waterholes within the Hobatere Concession Area (Hobatere North Lodge + Etosha Roadside {previously Hobatere campsite}); when more cameras became available, some were set up at baiting stations supplied irregularly with meat and others along roads known to be used by lions. This first phase of camera trapping revealed the initial identification and basic structure of the groups inhabiting the 34 000 ha Concession. During Phase 2, (2014 – 2015), one additional waterhole in Hobatere North (Tree House) became functional. By approximately mid-2014, the lions had calmed down somewhat, enabling digital photographs and sightings. Phase 3, (2015 – 2016), a total of 15 trail cameras were deployed within the 34 000 ha study site: constant sites included 3 waterholes, the Mine Road, the Hunters’ Road Gorge, Campsite(Roadside) bait, Tree House and Airfield bait-sites. Two-Four additional trail cameras were intermittently utilised at kill sites, fence-breaks, livestock kraals, wildlife-trails and at one den-site.



i) May 2013: the Hobatere Campsite (recently renamed Etosha Roadside) waterhole: 1 adult female (brand-mark X1) and 5 small cubs, approx. 7 months of age (estimated month of birth October 2012);

ii) September 2013: the Hobatere Lodge (recently renamed Hobatere North) waterhole: 2 adult males, 2 adult females and four small cubs (females), two approximately 3 months of age (estimated month of birth June 2013) and two approximately 9 months old (estimated month of birth December 2012);

iii) 2014, Etosha Roadside waterhole: an additional adult female was observed with 3 large cubs (1 male + 2 females), often in the company of lioness X1 and her 5 cubs (1 male + 4 females);

iv) October 2014, Hobatere North: + 3 small cubs (1 male + 2 females);

v) 2015 January, Etosha Roadside waterhole: X1 + 1 small cub; (2 cubs in total, one cub trapped/killed 2015)

vi) 2013-2016: 2 territorial males frequenting Hobatere North, Etosha Roadside and Etosha-west

vii) 2015 September, Hobatere North: + 2 unknown, young males

viii) 2016 February, Hobatere North: + 2 small cubs (sexes unknown)

ix) Feb 2016: estimated total number of known lions Hobatere North: 9

x) Feb 2016: estimated total number of known lions Etosha Roadside: 12

xi) Feb 2016: estimated total number of known territorial adult males: 2

xii) Feb 2016: Omatendeka lions collared by AfriCat: 2 males + 1 female
1.1.1. Summary of Lion Density and Population Size in Hobatere, Etosha-west and extended study area.

Phase 3: 01 July 2015 – 30 June 2016 {Report up to and including 29.02. 2016}

i) Introduction

Known Females: Hobatere Concession and Etosha-west (4 Adults)

The two loosely-associated prides, Hobatere North and Etosha Roadside, identified in Phase 2 (2014-2015), remain resident within the Hobatere Concession, with some cross-border movement onto communal farmland to the south, west and north as well as into Kaross Block and Etosha-west. As far as can be ascertained (sightings, camera trap footage and reports), the prides still comprise two adult lionesses each and their offspring. Neither pride has a resident male.

The Hobatere North Pride (SPOTS-Pride) comprises nine lions (8 females + 1 male): two lionesses, presumed to be mother (Hpl-11) and daughter (Hpl-1 -SPOTS) and their offspring. Hpl-11’s defunct VHF collar was replaced by a VHF-Satellite collar (22.02.2016). She has raised two females (born approximately July - August 2013) to the age of 2 yrs 6 months, at the time of writing; February 2016: one of Hpl-11’s sub-adult daughters seen with two very small cubs. Hpl-1, was first collared on 27.10.2013 at Hobatere Lodge waterhole, the collar was replaced on 23.09.2014 and on 29.01.2016, at the Hobatere Airfield bait-site. She has raised two females (estimated born October-December 2012) to the age of 3 yrs and 2 months and three younger cubs (born approx. 03.10.2014), at the time of writing. Hpl-1 has been seen with one male, possibly Hpl-6 (prior to his collaring, June 2015). The two lionesses and their offspring spend time together as a pride but are often separate.

The territorial males Hpl 2 and Hpl-6 are occasionally seen with this pride but are not resident.

The Etosha Roadside (prev. Hobatere Campsite) Pride remains at two adult lionesses, probably mother (brand-mark X1, no collar) and daughter (Hpl-7-Liluli) and their offspring. X1 raised five cubs (born approximately in October-December 2012) to the end of Phase 1 (2013-2014); camera trap visuals show that three offspring, one male and two females, survived to the end of Phase 2 (June 2015); two un-marked sub-adult females were trapped/shot on communal farmland along the Hobatere southern boundary, January-March 2015, camera track visuals indicate that they belonged to this group; X1 was seen with two young cubs during the second half of 2014 (born approximately September 2014); by the end of Phase 2, only one of the two cubs had survived, one cub trapped/shot on communal farmland along the Hobatere southern boundary, January-March 2015.

The younger lioness (Hpl 7 – Liluli) has raised one male and two females (born approx. first half 2014) to the end of Phase 2; she was immobilised and fitted with a GPS-Satellite collar on 08.06.2015. Camera trap footage indicates that both X1 and Hpl-7 were lactating during December 2015. The two lionesses and their cubs form a closely bonded pride.

The territorial males Hpl 2 and Hpl-6 are occasionally seen with this pride but are not resident for more than 12-36 hours at one time.
Known Males: Hobatere Concession and Etosha-west (3 Adults )

The two known, territorial adult males, Hpl-2 + Hpl-6, (est. 6-7 yrs of age) were first collared on free-hold farmland along Etosha’s southern boundary, March 2012, and returned to Etosha (relocated to Duineveld); initially three siblings, only two found their way onto the Hobatere Concession and have since established their dominance of the area, including Hobatere, Etosha-west (west of the Dolomite Range, with Renostervlei their northernmost point) and Kaross Block. Hpl-2 was re-collared using a GPS-Satellite unit, October 2014; Hpl-6 lost his initial VHF-collar and was re-collared using a GPS-Satellite unit, June 2015; he is the presumed father of the four sub-adult females and the three young cubs of the Hobatere North Pride. It is uncertain whether he fathered the cubs of the Etosha Roadside Pride (prev. Hobatere Campsite). Whilst Hpl-6 was immobilised, we discovered a serious injury to his lower right jaw, probably a kick by zebra, giraffe or such-like; his condition has remained stable but since this injury he seems to have relinquished dominance to his brother, Hpl-2. These males spend a large percentage of their time together and do not remain with either of the two prides for longer than 12-36 hours.

A young male, Hpl-9, (est. 4-5 yrs) was first seen (trail camera footage) on free-hold farmland, together with two unknown females (one Adult + one sub-Adult), during July 2015; they remained on farmland until the male (Hpl-9) and the sub-adult female (est. 2-3 yrs) were immobilised on farm Blyerus and returned to Etosha-west (Nomab water-point, approx. 60 km from darting location). The male was collared but the female seemed too slight so only Morphometric data was noted and biological samples taken. Hpl-9 crossed the border onto free-hold farmland within 3 days after his first relocation, returning to his core home range on day 14. He was recaptured and taken to Sonderkop in Etosha-west from where he returned to farmland within 7 days; after 23 days trapped on farmland behind electric fencing (farms Ermo & Robyn), Hpl-9 was collared for a third time (23.10.2015) and transported approx. 360 km eastwards to Goas waterhole near Halali, in Etosha. Since his third relocation, he has mostly remained within the Park boundaries, occasionally crossing onto farmland and wildlife reserves along the southern boundary, returning to Etosha-west on 31 December, where he has settled south-east of the Dolomite Range. The young female was not seen again after the first relocation.



Two newcomers to Hobatere
Hpl-10 + one male (possibly brother)

September 2015 marked the arrival of two young males to Hobatere North; approx. 3-4 yrs of age, these males spend a large portion of their time with the SPOTS-Pride. The sub-dominant male was collared 15.12.2015 at Tree House waterhole, Hobatere North. One or both males have been observed mating with two of the SPOTS-Pride sub-adult females; we suspect that the small cubs born approx. January 2016, were fathered by one of these males.

The territorial males, Hpl-2 + Hpl-6, still dominate the Hobatere Concession Area, Etosha-west and Kaross Block, with the younger males leaving the area when the territorial males arrive.
The Omatendeka Lions
The Etendeka Concession, Omatendeka Conservancy

Hpl 3, a male, collared on 27.05.2015, remains elusive and spends most of his time in the Obab River area, Palmwag Concession. The one female, Hpl- 4 and the second male, Hpl-5, were collared 28.05.2015, form a loosely-associated pair, with Hpl-4 part of pride comprising 2-3 females. Hpl-4’s range includes the Gaes, Kawaxab and Barap river systems as well as the Etendeka Concession Area. Hpl-5’s range extends to approx. 30 km north of the Etendeka Mountain Lodge, within the Etendeka Concession, including the Gaes, Kawaxab and Uniab river systems, occasionally moving eastwards, once visiting the Klip River in the Grootberg Range.



Section2:

ii) Total Collared / Marked Individuals (2013 – 2016)
Detailed Information and data collected Morphometric: Ten collared lions and one un-collared lion

i) Total Collared / Marked Individuals (2013-2016)

Study site: Hobatere Concession Area, Etosha-west + Omatendeka Conservancy

2013: one adult female, Hpl-1; 2014: Hpl-1 collar replaced + one adult male, Hpl-2; 2015: Hpl-2 damaged collar replaced, 2 adult females Hpl-4 + Hpl-7, three adult males, Hpl-3, Hpl-5 + Hpl-6, two young males Hpl-9 + Hpl-10; 2016: one adult female, Hpl-11 + Hpl-1 collar replaced; Hpl-12 brand-mark only (X1), pers comm. Dayne Braine, 2007.
Phase 3: Collared Individuals: Detailed information and data collected

01 July 2015 – 30 June 2016 {Report up to and including 29.02.2016):

a) Collared Males

In addition to the sibling males, Hpl-2 + Hpl-6, that move between Hobatere Concession and Etosha-west and Hpl-3 + Hpl-5 collared in the Omatendeka Conservancy (reported in Phase 2: 2014-2015), three more males have been identified, 2 of which were collared:

Hpl-9: located and collared on free-hold farmland 17.08.2015 (farm Byerus # 628); during July and August, until approx. one week prior to the time of darting, this young male was in the company of one adult and one sub-adult female (pers comm. W. Mare, farm Arendsnes, trail camera footage). The AfriCat trail camera footage identified one young female (visual 1,p14) and one young male (visual 2,p14); from observations, it seemed that the female was in oestrus. Farmers on Arendsnes, Blyerus and Voorspoed (Map 4,p7)claimed to have lost 2 cows, one weaner, one calf and one goat to the three lions. AfriCat requested permission from MET Etosha-west to return the lions to Etosha; according to farmer reports, these lions moved from the Etosha-Kaross block onto adjacent farmland.

Hpl-9: The following report includes general information and data collected on the three relocations undertaken by AfriCat; the report shows that factors influencing lion movement from Etosha NP onto adjacent farmland may be due to one of the following or a combination thereof:

a) Porous boundary fence between Etosha and farmland and Hobatere Concession Area and farmland (farmland = communal and free-hold, adjacent to these protected areas);

b) Farmers generally DO NOT kraal their livestock at night, rendering them vulnerable to predation and theft/poaching;

c) Female groups and hunting / prey preference: the AHLRP studies (June 2013- Feb 2016), have shown that the small 'prides' (2-4 adult females) are comprised of loosely grouped females and their offspring, lacking resident pride males;
Reasons for females hunting on farmland adjacent to ENP:
i) easier hunt either prior to giving birth or when cubs are small,
ii) the 'easy' prey syndrome continues when solitary mothers are under pressure to hunt more for increased sub-Adult needs (female X1 raised 5 cubs to at least 2.5 yrs mostly on her own), especially when livestock are weak, graze close to the Etosha/Hobatere fence or have become habituated to herds of livestock grazing (illegally) within the protected area (a regular occurrence in Hobatere and infrequently in Kaross Block since 2014, increasing in 2015);
iii) neighbouring free-hold farmers create baiting-stations mainly to attract spotted hyaena (acc to farmer reports), attracting lions as well (Hpl-2+Hpl-6 attempt return to old and new baiting stations on free-hold farm along southern boundary);
iv) cubs and sub-adults take on the habit to climb through fences / kill livestock from their mothers, possibly continuing into adult-hood

d) Males, especially sub-Adult males,
i) may become habituated when young, follow mother (female 'easy' prey syndrome), leaving the protected areas and / or kill livestock;
ii) resort to 'easy' prey when ousted from their natal pride;
iii) follow female in oestrus that may leave a protected area to hunt on adjacent farmland;
iv) become habituated to killing livestock when herds (illegally) graze inside protected areas.
Immobilization # 1 (17.08.2015): farm Blyerus, free-hold farmland, southern boundary Etosha NP.

17.08.2015: at 22h42, the female (Hpl-8), estimated 2-3 years of age, was anaesthetised on a zebra carcass kindly donated by MET Etosha-west; upon examination, she was smaller than we anticipated, with a thin neck, hence the decision not to fit the collar. A GPS-Satellite collar battery life expectancy ranges from 18-22 months, depending on the number of programmed uploads and downloads and should her neck width increase rapidly within that time, it could present a health risk; the greatest danger posed is collar dysfunction, with no way to monitor the animal’s well-being.

The male (Hpl-9) was anaesthetised at 23h05. Once the immobilised animal is stable, it is our policy to fit the collar first, before continuing with examinations and sample collection; should problems arise and the animal’s well-being is at risk, the reversal would be administered regardless, with the already fitted GPS-Satellite collar providing means to further monitor its health and movements. Blood, whiskers and faeces samples were taken, body measurements noted and vital signs monitored; this male weighed 244 kg, presenting an excellent body condition and general good health.

An interesting discovery was evidence of the Feline Papilloma virus on the underside of Hpl-9’s tongue.
(see explanation, Visual 8)
Permitted and accompanied by MET, both lions were loaded onto one of the AfriCat vehicles and relocated to Nomab Waterhole in Etosha-west, approx. 130 km from darting location. Reversal was given at 06h04 on 18.08.2015, after 7 hours of anaesthesia. The AfriCat Team observed his full recovery: Hpl-9 joined Hpl-8 (un-collared female), walked to the waterhole where he drank (approx. 15 minutes), before both lions walked off in a southerly direction, towards a herd of grazing zebra.
Age determination among free-ranging lions is complex, and is perhaps most reliably approximated by dental characteristics such as determination of incremental cementum line counts for canine root sections (Smuts et al., 1978). A diversity of other measures has also been used, including tooth wear and loss, tooth discolouration, skull and mandible measurements, etc. (Smuts et al., 1978). The reliability of such techniques has not been assessed across environments and populations, and these methods have limited applicability in determining the age of lions while they are alive. Whitman et al. (2004) proposed a means of aging live lions based on nose colour, suggested the simple ‘rule of thumb’ that a lion whose nose is 50% black is estimated to be ≥5 years old; Based on two different methods of analysis (one visual, one computerized), the authors conclude that there exists no reliable correlation between nose colour and age in the study population of lions in northern Botswana; given the diversity of nose colours noted among lions of all ages, a specific and age-dependent schedule of nose darkening is not applicable to lions pan-Africa. (ref. p59: Nicholls, K. Ward, J.L. & Kat P.W. African lion trophy hunting policy cannot be based on a site-specific model).

Papilloma viruses (PVs) are highly species- and site-specific pathogens; studies suggest that at least eight different cat papilloma viruses infect the oral cavity of Asian lion, Panthera leo, snow leopard, bobcat, Florida panther, clouded leopard and domestic cat, or skin, found on domestic cat and snow leopard. This asymptomatic infection suggests that cattle (bovine) are the reservoir host of this PV; test results suggest FeSarPV can cause disease in multiple felids and it appears the exposure of the lions to bovine skin may have predisposed to sarcoid development.


African lions frequently fight during feeding, commonly resulting in wounds around the oral cavity and face. Contamination of these wounds by FeSarPV from bovine skin during feeding could explain the predominant perioral mucocutaneous location of the sarcoids in these African lions. However, as multiple lions within prides were affected, transmission between individuals of the same pride by direct contact, for example mutual grooming, cannot be ruled out. Additionally, as male lions often feed first in both captive and wild situations, this behaviour may explain why only male lions were affected in this case.
General

Hpl-9 returned to free-hold farmland approx 36-48 hours after waking at Nomob waterhole, crossing the Etosha NP southern boundary onto Grenswag farm during the night of 19.08.2015. The GPS-Satellite collar was programmed to 2-hourly downloads and the AfriCat team were able to monitor his movements, providing an early-warning system for farmers along his route. AfriCat requested all farmers to provide information, especially sightings and any sign of prey.

Hpl-9 Route 18.08 – 29.09.2015 (refer to Map 6)

Day 1 – 19/08: in Etosha, moved in a southerly direction, approx. 13 km;

Day 2 - 20/08: continued moving in a southerly direction, covered 18km, exit Etosha onto free-hold farm Vlakwater; continued southward through the property onto farm Elandslaagte;

Day 3 – 21/08: early morning, moved north-eastwards onto farm Kronendal for approx. 1-2hrs, continued northwards onto farm Brakpan (approx.1-2hrs), and farm Grenswag (bordering southern ENP), remained there overnight;

Day 4 – 22/08: After heading 3.5 km north to a waterhole in farm Grenswag, (approx.8 hrs at waterhole), he returned southwards to farm Brakpan;

Day 5 – 23/08: continuing southwards, through farms Brakpan, onto Nirwana (approx. 6hrs), Babelsberg (approx. 2-3hrs), returning to farm Nirwana (approx. 15 km journey);

Day 6 – 24/08: travelling southwards, he crossed the farms Nirwana / Moedoorwin boundary fence at midnight, remaining on the fence-line for the entire day; he did not move more than 500m, remaining between the two fences; possible kill site, but no livestock-kill report;

Day 7 – 25/08: remained on farm Nirwana for approx. 45 minutes, returned to farm Moedoorwin for the rest of the day and night;

Day 8 – 26/08: moved southwards from farm Moedoorwin onto farm Die Vlakte, remained approx. 2/3 hours, then onto farm Stilte for approx. 8 hrs, after which he moved westwards onto farm Louwsville;

Day 9 – 26/08: remained on farm Stilte for day 9;

Days 10 – 14: 27-31/08: moved in a westerly direction onto farms Stilte, Kamanjab Noordt, Welvaart and Sonnegroet, returning to Welvaart and Kamanjab Noord, then northwards to Weissbrunn, Gelbingen and Voorspoed. On day 14, he returned to farm Blyerus, where he had been immobilized / collared;

Days 15 – 22: 01-08/09: Hpl-9 spent 1 – 3 days in the southern hills of farm Blyerus, his roars could be heard most evenings; we then realised that the female Hpl-8, was not with him. For three days after Hpl-9 and Hpl-8 had been returned to Etosha, the older female was heard roaring closer to the Kaross Block border, seemingly trying to locate the missing 'daughter' and young male (Hpl-9). For the next week, Hpl-9 made daily forays onto neighbouring farms Wilhelmsville and Arendsnes, slowly moving towards the Kaross Block, from whence he reportedly came. (Wilhelmsville owners make extensive use of poison to control spotted hyaena numbers, which Hpl-9 survived).

21 days (09.09.) after his relocation, Hpl-9 returned to Kaross Block, remaining along the Kaross eastern border, not venturing deeper and further west into Kaross Block. Realising that he may be staying out of Hpl-2 + Hpl-6’s range, which includes the Kaross Block, the AfriCat Team planned to patrol the Kaross Block southern boundary, to encourage him to move further northwards, out of Kaross Block into Etosha-west. Despite GPS waypoints in close proximity, we are not sure whether Hpl-9 met up with the territorial males, but at approx. 22h00 on 10.09., Hpl-9 jumped through the Kaross boundary fence, breaking 2 wooden poles, heading back to farms Arendsnes and Blyerus (11.09); his tracks indicated that he was moving fast.



During the following weeks leading up to his second capture on 29.09., Hpl-9 remained within one or two farms from his 'core' area, farms Arendsnes and Blyerus; during this time, no livestock were reported killed, only kudu and zebra carcasses could be found at the GPS location clusters; the farmers were notified when Hpl-9 ventured onto their properties, in most cases indicating interest instead of intolerance. On 21.09, Hpl-9 unexpectedly and hurriedly moved eastwards onto the game-farm Ekongo-Kaross (Hazeldene); regarding this as a safe-area due to the lack of livestock, we were surprised when the owner called to inform us of his intention to declare Hpl-9 a 'problem animal', as he had 'stolen' two warthog carcasses as well as a haunch of wildebeest, intended as bait for a leopard. Trophy hunters were in their 'hide-outs' in-wait for leopard when they observed Hpl-9 come in to take the bait; the farmer also feared for his plains zebra.

Permission was granted by Director of Parks & Wildlife, Mr Colgar Sikopo, to relocate Hpl-9 to Sonderkop waterhole, approx. 130 km by road, and approx. 75km from Ekongo-Kaross (straight line). On 29.09, forty-three days after his first relocation, Hpl-9 was darted on farm Ekongo-Kaross and removed by road to Sonderkop; at 06h00 on the morning of 30.09., Hpl-9 walked off into the unknown for the second time.

Footnote: during his travels from drop-off at Nomab waterhole to his second capture, Hpl-9 did not move more than 100m between 06h00 and 22h00, and did not spend more than 12 hours on one farm.
Immobilization # 2 (29.09.2015): farm Ekongo-Kaross (Hazeldene), free-hold farmland (game farm), southern boundary Etosha NP

Route 30.09. – 22.10.2015

The re-capture of Hpl-9 on 29.09., took place at a familiar water-point (Ekongo {Hazeldene} dam) and close to the leopard baiting-station, where a week prior, he had taken one of the warthog carcasses from the baiting-table; a zebra carcass was donated by MET Etosha-west (this time, two police officers accompanied Mr Gottfried Apollus of MET Etosha-west), strategically placed for optimal darting in the full moonlight. Typically, Hpl-9 began moving off the mountain at approx. 22h00 (monitored via VHF telemetry tracking, no GPS-Satellite downloads possible), rapidly walked in to the carcass by 23h00, indicating his state of hunger; by midnight, Hpl-9 was loaded and en-route to Sonderkop, approx. 65 kms further east of Nomab waterhole, a low density lion area; he woke from the anaesthesia at approx. 06h30 on 30.09., spending two days in the immediate area, probably in search of water and prey. 7 days later, Hpl-9 crossed the Etosha southern boundary into the farm Pionier; despite early warnings of his pending approach, the fence-lines remained porous and easy to climb through. Moving from Pionier onto the neighbouring farms Robyn & Ermo, Hpl-9 became trapped behind the electrified boundary fences with Etosha; it became clear that he was looking for a way out (see red line on said farms below). No livestock were killed during that time, but with no exit back into Etosha, this made for a potentially threatening situation.

Map 7 (below): indicating Hpl-9 movement from Sonderkop on 30.09.2015, his exit onto farm Pionier 07.10., and his movements trapped behind electrified boundary fences with Etosha, until his 3rd immobilization on 22.10.2015., on farm Robyn. ...............see the full text and pics on the link here:
http://www.africat.org/hobatere-lion-update-2016
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Gujarat forms subcommittee for lion translocation

Himanshu Kaushik | tnn | Updated: Mar 5, 2018, 07:36 IST

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AHMEDABAD: In a major step taken to ease translocation of lions from Gujarat to Madhya Pradesh, the Gujarat government has formed a nine-member subcommittee headed by the principal chief conservator of forest of the state.
null To address Gujarat’s concerns over lion translocation, the 12-member committee formed under the directions of the Supreme Court to oversee lion translocation from Gir to Kuno-Palpur in Madhya Pradesh will now have two sub-committes, one in each of the two states, to help smoothen the task. The sub-committees will be headed by principal chief conservators of forest from the respective states, and each sub-committee will have representation from the other state party to the translocation.

“To ensure that all concerns of the Gujarat government are amicably resolved and lion translocation can take place without hindrance, the 12-member committee of the apex court has asked both the states to form sub-committees for translocation,” said a source in Gujarat’s sub-committee for lion translocation.

He added, “The sub-committee will be headed by the principal chief conservators of forest, and include state government officials, a representative each from Madhya Pradesh forest department, Union government and Wildlife Insitute of India.”

The sub-committee in MP will be formed similarly, said the source.

G K Sinha, principal chief conservator of forest (wildlife) said the Gujarat sub-committee has on board the PCCF (wildlife), additional PCCF (wildlife), conservator of forest Junagadh (wildlife), conservator of forest Junagadh, deputy conservator of forest (headquarters) and the director of Gujarat Ecological Education and Research Foundation as members.

Yadvendradev Jhala of the WII said, “We have received the letter from Gujarat government to appoint a representative on the committee. The committee mandate is to ensure translocation of the lions.” Sources in the lion translocation committee said that Gujarat has been raising objections and misgivings about successful translocation citing a poor prey base, smaller area, lack of proper relocation of the people in Kuno-Palpur, among other issues. This sub-committee will ensure that the concerns raised by Gujarat are addressed and with a member from the Gujarat government in MP’s sub-committee it will be ensured that things are done according to the satisfaction of Gujarat’s state government.

A forest officer said that when all key issues raised by Gujarat are addressed to the state’s satisfaction, the two sub-committees will submit their report to the main committee and lion translocation will beging. Formation of the two-subcommittees will help ensure direct involvement and regular monitoring of translocation by both the states, said the officer.

Source
SC contempt notice against Gujarat discharged

Himanshu Kaushik | TNN | Mar 9, 2018, 07:08 IST

AHMEDABAD : The Supreme Court has discharged the contempt notice in the petition filed by Madhya Pradesh-based wildlife activist, Ajay Dubey, demanding action against concerned authorities including the Gujarat and Union governments for not implementing the apex court’s order for lion translocation passed in April 2013.

The Union minister of forest and environment assured the court that the 12-member committee, formed according to the apex court’s order of April 2013, will meet later this month and the minutes will be placed before the court.
Currently other petitions clubbed with the contempt proceeding will be heard.

In respect to the challenge to lion translocation clubbed with the contempt proceedings by Rajkot based NGO, Wildlife Conservation Trust (WCT), the SC has asked the Gujarat government and the Union ministry of environment forest and climate change to file their replies. WCT has opposed the translocation of lions from Gir in Gujarat to Kuno-Palpur in Madhya Pradesh.

The matter is listed for hearing in April.

Ajay Dubey, a wildlife activist from Madhya Pradesh, has filed the contempt petition in the Supreme Court demanding action against the government of India and the Gujarat government for not implementing the apex court order of April 2013 directing translocation of lions to Kuno Palpur from Sasan Gir. WTC filed an impleadment application in the contempt proceedings.

Varun Chopra, who appeared on behalf of Ajay Dubey in Supreme court, said, “The court after ta- king the statement of Union ministry on record discharged the contempt notice, but has asked the petitioner to be present in the court during next hearings.”

Tushar Gokani, advocate for the WCT, said, "We had during the hearing in the apex court sought permission and the court had permitted the trust to file an impleadment application in the contempt petition which is going on in the apex court.

“The apex court on Thursday, while hearing the matter asked the Union ministry and Gujarat forest department to file their replies. The matter is now listed for hearing in April, and the court had issued notice to Gujarat government,” said Gokani Gokani said the Union ministry has placed on record that the committee has met six to seven times and they will be meeting by March 13. Gokani further said that during the hearing, one of the judges had remarked “We have to be very careful in translocating the lions. All the aspects have to be thoroughly examined.”

The WCT in its petition has submitted that Gujarat has tried to put forward several arguments before the expert committee formed by the order of the Supreme Court, but the committee which was bound by directions given in the judgement, was not willing to hear any arguments against translocation.

The petitioner organization has raised concerns of animal behaviour and submitted that the court has been misguided on the issue of status of lions.

The petitioner has said that the status of the Asiatic lion was not critically endangered, but that according to the Red List of the International Union for Conservation of Nature it has been listed as endangered species.

The petitioner organization demanded that the Supreme Court should consider that under Wildlife Protection Act, 1935, the chief wildlife warden, the state government and central government are appropriate authorities to decide on translocation of any species.

Source
Steering panel holds first meeting

Himanshu Kaushik | tnn | Updated: Mar 14, 2018, 06:57 IST

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AHMEDABAD: A meeting of the steering committee formed for translocating lions from Gir Forest in Gujarat to Kuno Palpur in Madhya Pradesh was held in Delhi on Tuesday. The committee directed the Madhya Pradesh forest department to form a panel similar to the one in Gujarat. The steering committee has asked the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) to appoint its representative in both the committees.

In 2013, the apex court had ordered the translocation of lions from Gir to Kuno Palpur. The steering committee comprises six members and the additional director general of forests (of the ministry of environment, forest and climate change) is the chairman. The others members include a scientist, the representative of the WII, principal chief conservators of forests from Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh, and the director of wildlife preservation from the ministry.

On Tuesday, the first meeting of the steering committee was held. Since the ministry has not appointed scientists for the translocation mission, the meeting was adjourned with directions to Madhya Pradesh to form the committee and to the WII to appoint its representatives to both the committees. A source in the committee said: “Madhya Pradesh was to form the committee, but instead of appointing the members, the Madhya Pradesh forest department sent a report asking the steering committee to form the Madhya Pradesh coordination committee.”

The steering committee has asked Madhya Pradesh to have a Gujarat representative in the committee it is to form. The Madhya Pradesh government was also asked to appoint its representative in the Gujarat committee. Earlier this month, to ease the translocation process, the Gujarat government had formed a nine-member subcommittee headed by the principal chief conservator of forests. The Gujarat subcommittee will be headed by the principal chief conservator of forests, and include state government officials, a representative from the Madhya Pradesh forest department, Union government, and the WII.

Source
Edited by Flesh, Jun 3 2018, 03:59 PM.
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Fruit flies fear lion feces

May 30, 2018, Lund University

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Fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster). Credit: Marcus Stensmyr

A new doctoral thesis from Lund University in Sweden shows how fruit flies use their sense of smell and humidity to find food, avoid dehydration and discover the best place to lay their eggs—in overripe marula fruits. Faeces from herbivores are also suitable, but the flies reject carnivore excrement.

Summer is high season for tiny fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster). Overripe fruit is their favourite haunt, and if the fruit is in a relatively humid location, the fruit flies like it even more.

On Friday 1 June, Suzan Mansourian will publicly defend her thesis Drosophila sensory neuroethology, in which she examined fruit fly behaviour and the nerves and neural pathways that govern this seemingly simple organism. Together with colleagues, Suzan Mansourian investigated and mapped the receptors on the fruit fly's antennae, which it uses to locate food, humidity, reproductive partners, and a good place to lay its eggs. Some receptors detect fragrance molecules from the fermentation process in rotting fruit—a fragrance that signifies food for the fruit fly.

Other receptors react to the smell of phenol, which is released by the pathogenic bacteria in the excrement of predators. When the fruit fly identifies the smell of phenol, it avoids laying its eggs in the location, as it is a dangerous place for the larvae. Mansourian made the discovery in connection with fieldwork in Africa. Her results show that fruit flies shun the excrement of lions, but have no objections to laying their eggs in giraffe faeces.

In her thesis, she also describes the fruit fly's humidity receptors, located behind the antennae. These receptors function like a sixth sense for the fruit fly, helping it to find environments where it can avoid dehydration. These humidity receptors enable the fruit fly to find its way into kitchens, for example, where the humidity in the air is usually relatively high, around 70 per cent.

Although the fruit fly is a generalist and manages to survive well in widely diverse environments, Suzan Mansourian reveals that it thrives best of all in the vicinity of overripe marula fruits, which are plentiful for parts of the year in the whole of southern Africa. Her conclusion is that marula is the original host plant of the fruit fly.

The findings in the thesis increase knowledge of the fruit fly's senses of smell and humidity, as well as their underlying mechanisms.

"These results could lead to new approaches and strategies in combating mosquitoes and insect pests", says Suzan Mansourian.

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