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| African (Common) Puff Adder - Bitis arietans | |
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| Tweet Topic Started: Aug 9 2012, 05:50 AM (3,003 Views) | |
| Carcharadon | Aug 9 2012, 05:50 AM Post #1 |
Shark Toothed Reptile
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African (Common) Puff Adder - Bitis arietans Scientific Classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Subphylum: Vertebrata Class: Reptilia Order: Squamata Suborder: Serpentes Family: Viperidae Subfamily: Viperinae Genus: Bitis Species: B. arietans Bitis arietans is a venomous viper species found in savannah and grasslands from Morocco and western Arabia throughout Africa except for the Sahara and rain forest regions. It is responsible for causing the most fatalities in Africa owing to various factors, such as its wide distribution and frequent occurrence in highly populated regions. Two subspecies are currently recognized, including the nominate subspecies described here. The species is commonly known as puff adder, African puff adder, or common puff adder. Description The average size is about 1 m in length and very stout. Large specimens of 190 cm (75 in), weighing over 6.0 kg (13.2 lbs) and with a girth of 40 cm (16 in) have been reported. Specimens from Saudi Arabia are not as large, usually no more than 80 cm in length. Males are usually larger than females and have relatively longer tails. The head has a less than triangular shape with a blunt and rounded snout. Still, it is much wider than the neck. The rostral scale is small. The circumorbital ring consists of 10–16 scales. Across the top of the head, there are 7–11 interocular scales. 3–4 scales separate the suboculars and the supralabials. There are 12–17 supralabials and 13–17 sublabials. The first 3–4 sublabials contact the chin shields. Often, there are two fangs on each maxilla and both can be functional. Midbody there are 29–41 rows of dorsal scales. These are strongly keeled except for the outermost rows. The ventral scale count is 123–147, the subcaudals 14–38. Females have no more than 24 subcaudals. The anal scale is single.  The color pattern varies geographically. The head has two well-marked dark bands: one on the crown and the other between the eyes. On the sides of the head, there are two oblique dark bands or bars that run from the eye to the supralabials. Below, the head is yellowish white with scattered dark blotches. Iris color ranges from gold to silver-gray. Dorsally, the ground-color varies from straw yellow, to light brown, to orange or reddish brown. This is overlaid with a pattern of 18–22 backwardly-directed, dark brown to black bands that extend down the back and tail. Usually these bands are roughly chevron-shaped, but may be more U-shaped in some areas. They also form 2–6 light and dark cross-bands on the tail. Some populations are heavily flecked with brown and black, often obscuring other coloration, giving the animal a dusty-brown or blackish appearance. The belly is yellow or white, with a few scattered dark spots. Newborn young have golden head markings with pinkish to reddish ventral plates toward the lateral edges. One unusual specimen, described by Branch and Farrell (1988), from Summer Pride, East London in South Africa, was striped. The pattern consisted of a narrow (1 scale wide) pale yellowish stripe that ran from the crown of the head to the tip of the tail. Generally, though, these are relatively dull-looking snakes, except for male specimens from highland east Africa and Cape Province, South Africa, that usually have a striking yellow and black color pattern. Geographic Range This species is probably the most common and widespread snake in Africa. It is found in most of sub-Saharan Africa south to the Cape of Good Hope, including southern Morocco, Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, southern Algeria, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Niger, Nigeria, Chad, Sudan, Cameroon, Central African Republic, northern, eastern and southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Kenya, Somalia, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, Angola, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia and South Africa. It also occurs on the Arabian peninsula, where it is found in southwestern Saudi Arabia and Yemen. The type locality given is "Promontorio bonae spei" (Cape of Good Hope, South Africa). Habitat It is found in all habitats except true deserts, rain forests, and (tropical) alpine habitats. Most often associated with rocky grasslands. It is not found in rainforest areas, such as along the coast of West Africa and in Central Africa (i.e., central DR Congo); it is also absent from the Mediterranean coastal region of North Africa. On the Arabian peninsula, it is found as far north as Ta'if. It has been reported to be found in the Dhofar region of southern Oman. Behavior Normally a sluggish species, it relies on camouflage for protection. Locomotion is primarily rectilinear, using the broad ventral scales in a caterpillar fashion and aided by its own weight for traction. When agitated, it can resort to a typical serpentine movement and move with surprising speed. Although mainly terrestrial, these snakes are good swimmers and can also climb with ease; often they are found basking in low bushes. One specimen was found 4.6 m above the ground in a densely branched tree. If disturbed, they will hiss loudly and continuously, adopting a tightly coiled defensive posture with the fore part of their body held in a taut "S" shape. At the same time, they may attempt to back away from the threat towards cover. They may strike suddenly and at a high speed, to the side as easily as forwards, before returning quickly to the defensive position, ready to strike again. During a strike, the force of the impact is so strong, and the long fangs penetrate so deeply, that prey items are often killed by the physical trauma alone. The fangs are apparently able to penetrate soft leather. They can strike to a distance of about one third of their body length, but juveniles will launch their entire bodies forwards in the process. These snakes rarely grip their victims, instead releasing quickly to return to the striking position.  Feeding Mostly nocturnal, they rarely forage actively, preferring instead to ambush prey as it happens by. Their prey includes mammals, birds, amphibians, and lizards Reproduction Females produce a pheromone to attract males, which engage in neck-wrestling combat dances. A female in Malindi was followed by seven males. They give birth to large numbers of offspring: litters of over 80 have been reported, while 50–60 is not unusual. Newborns are 12.5–17.5 cm in length. Very large specimens, particularly those from East Africa, give birth to the highest numbers of offspring. A Kenyan female in a Czech zoo gave birth to 156 young, the largest litter for any species of snake. Captivity These snakes do well in captivity, but there are reports of gluttony. Kauffeld (1969) mentions that specimens can be maintained for years on only one mouse a week, but that when offered all they can eat, the result is often death, or at best wholesale regurgitation. They are bad-tempered snakes and some specimens never settle down in captivity, always hissing and puffing when approached. Venom This species is responsible for more fatalities than any other African snake. This is due to a combination of factors, including its wide distribution, common occurrence, large size, potent venom that is produced in large amounts, long fangs, their habit of basking by footpaths and sitting quietly when approached. The venom has cytotoxic effects and is one of the most toxic of any vipers based on LD50. The LD50 values in mice vary: 0.4–2.0 mg/kg IV, 0.9–3.7 mg/kg IP, 4.4–7.7 mg/kg SC. Mallow et al. (2003) give an LD50 range of 1.0–7.75 mg/kg SC. Venom yield is typically between 100–350 mg, with a maximum of 750 mg. Brown (1973) mentions a venom yield of 180–750 mg. About 100 mg is thought to be enough to kill a healthy adult human male, with death occurring after 25 hours. In humans, bites from this species can produce severe local and systemic symptoms. Based on the degree and type of local effect, bites can be divided into two symptomatic categories: those with little or no surface extravasation, and those with hemorrhages evident as ecchymosis, bleeding and swelling. In both cases there is severe pain and tenderness, but in the latter there is widespread superficial or deep necrosis and compartment syndrome. Serious bites cause limbs to become immovably flexed as a result of significant hemorrhage or coagulation in the affected muscles. Residual induration, however, is rare and usually these areas completely resolve. Other bite symptoms that may occur in humans include edema, which may become extensive, shock, watery blood oozing from the puncture wounds, nausea and vomiting, subcutaneous bruising, blood blisters that may form rapidly, and a painful swelling of the regional lymph nodes. Swelling usually decreases after a few days, except for the area immediately around the bite site. Hypotension, together with weakness, dizziness and periods of semi- or unconsciousness is also reported. If not treated carefully, necrosis will spread, causing skin, subcutaneous tissue and muscle to separate from healthy tissue and eventually slough with serous exudate. The slough may be superficial or deep, sometimes down to the bone. Gangrene and secondary infections commonly occurs and can result in loss of digits and limbs. The fatality rate highly depends on the severity of the bites and some other factors. Deaths can be exceptional and probably occur in less than 10% of all untreated cases (usually in 2–4 days from complications following blood volume deficit and a disseminated intravascular coagulopathy), although some reports show that severe envenomations have a 52% mortality rate. Most fatalities are associated with bad clinical management and neglect. 
Edited by Taipan, Aug 18 2012, 02:33 PM.
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| Ceratodromeus | Dec 24 2015, 03:13 AM Post #2 |
Aspiring herpetologist
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Puff Adders are Masters of Disguise and Smell http://www.reptilesmagazine.com/puff-adders-are-masters-of-disguise-and-smell/ The puff adder (Bitis arietans) is a master of camouflage but did you know that it can also mask its scent to make it nearly invisible to animals that rely on scent to find prey items? That is right, the venomous puff adder is a master of scent camouflage. Researchers with the University of the Witwatersrand’s School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences in Johannesburg, South Africa, trained dogs and meerkats to determine whether these animals could detect puff adders via olfaction, or via sense of smell. They also trained the animals to detect via smell, five species of active foraging snakes versus ambush snakes like the puff adder. What their research determined was the dogs and meerkats could easily detect the foraging snakes--their accuracy in locating them was better than 80 percent. They were unable, however to detect either the captive or wild puff adders. The puff adder hides itself scent-wise via what scientists call chemical crypsis, which basically means it can mask its scent so as to go undetectable. The researchers speculate that other ambush snakes may also mask their scent to remain undetected. The puff adder is found in nearly all of sub Saharan Africa, South Africa, and on the Arabian Peninsula into Saudi Arabia and Yemen. It is found in most habitats with the exception of true deserts, rain forests and tropical alpine habitats. They feed on small mammals, birds, amphibians and lizards. It bites more people in Africa than any other snake. The venom of this species is one of the most toxic of viper based on LD 50 values. Symptoms can include bleeding and swelling, hemorrhages, and deep necrosis. An ambusher's arsenal: chemical crypsis in the puff adder (Bitis arietans) Abstract Ambush foragers use a hunting strategy that places them at risk of predation by both visual and olfaction-oriented predators. Resulting selective pressures have driven the evolution of impressive visual crypsis in many ambushing species, and may have led to the development of chemical crypsis. However, unlike for visual crypsis, few studies have attempted to demonstrate chemical crypsis. Field observations of puff adders (Bitis arietans) going undetected by several scent-orientated predator and prey species led us to investigate chemical crypsis in this ambushing species. We trained dogs (Canis familiaris) and meerkats (Suricata suricatta) to test whether a canid and a herpestid predator could detect B. arietans using olfaction. We also tested for chemical crypsis in five species of active foraging snakes, predicted to be easily detectable. Dogs and meerkats unambiguously indicated active foraging species, but failed to correctly indicate puff adder, confirming that B. arietans employs chemical crypsis. This is the first demonstration of chemical crypsis anti-predatory behaviour, though the phenomenon may be widespread among ambushers, especially those that experience high mortality rates owing to predation. Our study provides additional evidence for the existence of an ongoing chemically mediated arms race between predator and prey species. http://m.rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org//content/282/1821/20152182.abstract Edited by Ceratodromeus, Dec 24 2015, 03:15 AM.
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| Ceratodromeus | Feb 16 2016, 07:25 AM Post #3 |
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Aspiring herpetologist
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account of a puff adder biting and killing unfortunate donkey foals, from Animal life in africa(By James Stevenson-hamilton) 
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| Ceratodromeus | Apr 21 2016, 03:22 PM Post #4 |
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Aspiring herpetologist
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3D reconstruction of fang replacement in the venomous snakes Dendroaspis jamesoni (Elapidae) and Bitis arietans (Viperidae) "Venomous snakes use highly specialized teeth, so-called fangs, to kill living prey items. The evolution of these fangs and that of the associated venom-producing and -delivery system has been the subject of continuous research (e.g., Kochva 1978, Kardong 1982, Knight & Mindell 1994, Jackson 2003, Fry et al. 2008, Vonk et al. 2008). In addition to the evolutionary origin of tubular fangs, their ontogenetic formation has been studied as well (e.g., Tomes 1874, Bogert 1943, Klauber 1972, Lake & Trevor-Jones 1987, Lake & Trevor-Jones 1995, Jackson 2002). While our knowledge has significantly increased thanks to the integrated evaluation of palaeontological, morphological, physiological, molecular and other data, some details still remain unresolved. One such remaining problem concerns the timing and regulation of fang replacement, i.e., when and how a functional fang is replaced by a new fang. This topic has been briefly touched by Jackson (2007). Snakes replace their teeth, including the fangs, regularly and continuously, therefore there is always a number of replacement fangs posterior to the functional one. The maxilla typically has sockets for two fangs in lateral versus medial positions. At any given time, one would expect one fang to be solidly fused (ankylosed) to the socket and the other more or less loose and in the process of either attaching or being shed. However, as a functional safety factor, the phase when both fangs are ankylosed should overlap to some degree, avoiding a time window where both the replacement fang and the one in the process of being shed would not be fixed to the upper jaw. According to Klauber (1972), this period of overlap must be short, since two functional fangs on one side (i.e., both are firmly set in neighbouring sockets) are observed very infrequently."  "Puff adders (Bitis arietans) are heavy ambush predators in Africa, and they have very large fangs that may exceed 30 mm in length, fused to short but wide maxillae. The anatomy of the skull and the mass of attached muscles facilitate a powerful strike, and the amount of injected venom can be very high compared to that in other venomous snakes (see also Fig. 3, left). Our specimen was fixed and preserved with the mouth closed, and therefore its fangs remained in a resting position during the reconstruction. On the right-hand side, two fangs are visible in a parallel position, resulting in equal striking angles (Figures 3–4). From a mechanical point of view, both fangs would be fully efficient in penetrating a prey animal. At first sight, both of these fangs seem to be fully functional. They are roughly equal in size and positioned very close to each other. To have a better view, pieces of bones were digitally cut away around the fangs to make close-up views possible (Fig. 5). These show that fang No. 1, fixed in a lateral socket of the maxilla is the functional fang, while the one less firmly ankylosed in the medial socket is the next fang in the replacement series. The alternate possible interpretation would have been that the medial fang is older than the lateral one and in the process of loosening prior to being shed. However, based on a comparison of the angles of the shafts of fangs 1 and 2 (# 1 is in a closer-to-vertical position, and # 2 lies at an angle intermediate between 1 and replacement fang 3), we interpret fang # 2 as being in the process of attaching to the maxilla rather than in the process of detaching. According to Klauber’s (1972) explanation of the sequence of fang replacement, fang No. 3 will replace whichever in-place fang (lateral or medial) is shed first"  Figure 5. Frontal (left) and lateral views (right) of the fangs of Bitis arietans. Numbers indicate the sequence of fangs in the replacement series. Link to paper |
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| tigerburningbright | Apr 25 2016, 04:02 PM Post #5 |
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Herbivore
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Not a Snake I would want to be tagged by Edited by tigerburningbright, Apr 25 2016, 04:03 PM.
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